62
Paul T. Jacobson
In 1973, the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea adopted a
“Code of Practice to Reduce the Risks of Adverse Effects Arising from Introductions of Non-indigenous Marine Species” (Kohler and Courtenay 1986). In 1977,
President Carter issued an executive order on exotic organisms (11987, 42 Fed.
Reg. 26949 [25 May 1977]), directing federal agencies, to the extent authorized
by law, to restrict introduction of exotic species into U.S. ecosystems. In practice,
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) reviews each proposed introduction
involving federal agencies or funding and issues a biological opinion. One of the
criteria for determining the biological opinion is concurrence with the state responsible for management of the species and its habitat in the affected ecosystem
(Versar 1992a).
In 1980, the Exotic Fish Section was formed within the American Fisheries
Society to address exotic fish issues. Subsequently, the section changed its name
to the Introduced Fish Section to encompass transplanted species, which far
outnumber introductions of exotics and present many of the same risks (Kohler
and Courtenay 1986). In 1986, the American Fisheries Society devoted an entire
issue of its bulletin to the issue of introduced species (AFS 1986).
In 1987, the North American Commission of the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO) endorsed a set of recommendations that included a prohibition on intentional introductions of Pacific salmonids in eastern
North America. The Non-indigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control
Act of 1990 (16 U.S.C.A. 4701– 4751) created the interagency Aquatic Nuisance
Species Task Force. The task force, co-chaired by representatives of the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the USFWS, is required to develop
a program to prevent, monitor, and control unintentional introductions of nonindigenous aquatic nuisance species and to provide for related public education and
research (OTA 1993).
The Office of Technology Assessment conducted a study of harmful nonindigenous species in the United States (OTA 1993). The report provided an overview of the status of harmful nonindigenous species in the United States and an
examination of the technological issues and institutional organizations involved in
dealing with harmful nonindigenous species.
The Chesapeake Bay Program, a joint federal–state partnership to protect and
restore Chesapeake Bay, produced a policy on introduction of nonindigenous
aquatic species (CBP 1993). Among other steps, the agreement requires participating jurisdictions (i.e., states and the District of Columbia) to submit any
permit application that could ultimately be approved for review by an ad hoc panel
made up of independent technical experts and representatives from each jurisdiction that is a party to the agreement. After review of the permit application and
within 60 days of the date of submittal, the ad hoc panel provides nonbinding
recommendations to the jurisdiction.
On February 3, 1999, President Clinton signed Executive Order 13112 “to
prevent the introduction of invasive species and provide for their control and to
minimize the economic, ecological, and human health impacts that invasive species cause.” The order calls on each federal agency “to the extent practicable and
Paul T. Jacobson
In 1973, the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea adopted a
“Code of Practice to Reduce the Risks of Adverse Effects Arising from Introductions of Non-indigenous Marine Species” (Kohler and Courtenay 1986). In 1977,
President Carter issued an executive order on exotic organisms (11987, 42 Fed.
Reg. 26949 [25 May 1977]), directing federal agencies, to the extent authorized
by law, to restrict introduction of exotic species into U.S. ecosystems. In practice,
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) reviews each proposed introduction
involving federal agencies or funding and issues a biological opinion. One of the
criteria for determining the biological opinion is concurrence with the state responsible for management of the species and its habitat in the affected ecosystem
(Versar 1992a).
In 1980, the Exotic Fish Section was formed within the American Fisheries
Society to address exotic fish issues. Subsequently, the section changed its name
to the Introduced Fish Section to encompass transplanted species, which far
outnumber introductions of exotics and present many of the same risks (Kohler
and Courtenay 1986). In 1986, the American Fisheries Society devoted an entire
issue of its bulletin to the issue of introduced species (AFS 1986).
In 1987, the North American Commission of the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO) endorsed a set of recommendations that included a prohibition on intentional introductions of Pacific salmonids in eastern
North America. The Non-indigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control
Act of 1990 (16 U.S.C.A. 4701– 4751) created the interagency Aquatic Nuisance
Species Task Force. The task force, co-chaired by representatives of the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the USFWS, is required to develop
a program to prevent, monitor, and control unintentional introductions of nonindigenous aquatic nuisance species and to provide for related public education and
research (OTA 1993).
The Office of Technology Assessment conducted a study of harmful nonindigenous species in the United States (OTA 1993). The report provided an overview of the status of harmful nonindigenous species in the United States and an
examination of the technological issues and institutional organizations involved in
dealing with harmful nonindigenous species.
The Chesapeake Bay Program, a joint federal–state partnership to protect and
restore Chesapeake Bay, produced a policy on introduction of nonindigenous
aquatic species (CBP 1993). Among other steps, the agreement requires participating jurisdictions (i.e., states and the District of Columbia) to submit any
permit application that could ultimately be approved for review by an ad hoc panel
made up of independent technical experts and representatives from each jurisdiction that is a party to the agreement. After review of the permit application and
within 60 days of the date of submittal, the ad hoc panel provides nonbinding
recommendations to the jurisdiction.
On February 3, 1999, President Clinton signed Executive Order 13112 “to
prevent the introduction of invasive species and provide for their control and to
minimize the economic, ecological, and human health impacts that invasive species cause.” The order calls on each federal agency “to the extent practicable and