52
be of the same type as that of hard bottoms featuring sulphide deposits, with many
large organisms, such as corals and sponges, fixed to rocks. The consequences of
the exploitation of these resources on benthic communities would be comparable
to that of sulphide deposits, with the exception of damage caused to hydrothermal
ecosystems, absent from these environments.
Environmentally-friendly Exploitation of Deep-sea
Mineral Resources
Deep-sea mineral resources may be located in international waters, in areas governed
by the rights of States (EEZ), or in the area inside the limits of national jurisdiction.
Deep-sea mineral exploration and exploitation activities are conducted under the responsibility of sovereign States or the International Seabed Authority (ISA).
In the so-called Area (international waters in the high sea), the ISA introduced
the Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the
Area in 2000 and the Regulations for Prospecting and Exploration of Polymetallic
Sulphides in 2010; the regulations for cobalt-rich crusts are still under discussion.
The general aim of these regulations is to identify the possible impacts of activities
on the environment in order to take the necessary measures to preserve the environment and its biological wealth. These regulations were defined taking into consideration scientific knowledge and understanding of the technology to be implemented
to carry out these activities. They may be periodically revised to take account of
progress in knowledge and technological developments.
Seven exploration licenses have currently been granted for polymetallic nodules in
the Eastern Pacific, one of which was awarded to France in 2001. The first two licenses relating to sulphides were granted in 2011, one to China and the other to Russia.
In 2004, Ifremer conducted a multidisciplinary campaign in the Clarion–Clipperton Zone, focusing on the geological and biological environment of the two main
sectors covered by France’s nodule license. The acquired knowledge together with
that of the other license holders and many scientists specialised in abyssal biodiversity contributed to the proposal of a project to develop an environmental management plan for the Clarion–Clipperton Zone, currently under discussion at the ISA.
As for sulphides, protection measures have been implemented by national jurisdictions for four areas with hydrothermal systems. These four areas are the Endeavour
Hydrothermal Vents Marine Protected Area in the North-East Pacific (Canada), the
Guaymas Basin and Eastern Pacific Rise Hydrothermal Vents Sanctuary (Mexico),
the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument in the US waters of the Pacific and
the Azores Marine Protected Area on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Portugal).
Scientists are striving to provide decision-making bodies with their knowledge
of deep-sea biodiversity and ecosystems, based on which recommendations are
made for environmentally-friendly exploitation of resources. However, understanding of these environments remains patchy, and the recommendations are necessarily
governed by the precautionary principle. Research programmes should be pursued
and new methods and technologies developed to improve our perception of these
“unknown abyssal treasures” (Figs. 2.13, 2.14, and 2.15).
J. Galéron
be of the same type as that of hard bottoms featuring sulphide deposits, with many
large organisms, such as corals and sponges, fixed to rocks. The consequences of
the exploitation of these resources on benthic communities would be comparable
to that of sulphide deposits, with the exception of damage caused to hydrothermal
ecosystems, absent from these environments.
Environmentally-friendly Exploitation of Deep-sea
Mineral Resources
Deep-sea mineral resources may be located in international waters, in areas governed
by the rights of States (EEZ), or in the area inside the limits of national jurisdiction.
Deep-sea mineral exploration and exploitation activities are conducted under the responsibility of sovereign States or the International Seabed Authority (ISA).
In the so-called Area (international waters in the high sea), the ISA introduced
the Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the
Area in 2000 and the Regulations for Prospecting and Exploration of Polymetallic
Sulphides in 2010; the regulations for cobalt-rich crusts are still under discussion.
The general aim of these regulations is to identify the possible impacts of activities
on the environment in order to take the necessary measures to preserve the environment and its biological wealth. These regulations were defined taking into consideration scientific knowledge and understanding of the technology to be implemented
to carry out these activities. They may be periodically revised to take account of
progress in knowledge and technological developments.
Seven exploration licenses have currently been granted for polymetallic nodules in
the Eastern Pacific, one of which was awarded to France in 2001. The first two licenses relating to sulphides were granted in 2011, one to China and the other to Russia.
In 2004, Ifremer conducted a multidisciplinary campaign in the Clarion–Clipperton Zone, focusing on the geological and biological environment of the two main
sectors covered by France’s nodule license. The acquired knowledge together with
that of the other license holders and many scientists specialised in abyssal biodiversity contributed to the proposal of a project to develop an environmental management plan for the Clarion–Clipperton Zone, currently under discussion at the ISA.
As for sulphides, protection measures have been implemented by national jurisdictions for four areas with hydrothermal systems. These four areas are the Endeavour
Hydrothermal Vents Marine Protected Area in the North-East Pacific (Canada), the
Guaymas Basin and Eastern Pacific Rise Hydrothermal Vents Sanctuary (Mexico),
the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument in the US waters of the Pacific and
the Azores Marine Protected Area on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Portugal).
Scientists are striving to provide decision-making bodies with their knowledge
of deep-sea biodiversity and ecosystems, based on which recommendations are
made for environmentally-friendly exploitation of resources. However, understanding of these environments remains patchy, and the recommendations are necessarily
governed by the precautionary principle. Research programmes should be pursued
and new methods and technologies developed to improve our perception of these
“unknown abyssal treasures” (Figs. 2.13, 2.14, and 2.15).
J. Galéron