rotation of the North Slope block. In Tailleur, I. L., and Weimer,
P. (eds.), Alaskan North Slope Geology. Los Angeles: Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Pacific Section,
pp. 581–617.
Labails, C., Olivet, J., Aslanian, D., and Roest, W., 2010. An alternative early opening scenario for the Central Atlantic Ocean.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 297, 355–368.
Larson, R. L., and Chase, C. G., 1972. Late Mesozoic evolution of
the western Pacific. Geological Society of America Bulletin,
83, 3627–3644.
Lawver, L. A., Gahagan, L. M., and Dalziel, I. W. D., 2011.
A different look at gateways: Drake Passage and Australia/Antarctica. In Anderson, J. B., and Wellner, J. S. (eds.), Tectonic,
Climatic, and Cryospheric Evolution of the Antarctic Peninsula.
Washington, DC: AGU, Vol. 63, pp. 5–33.
Matthews, K. J., Seton, M., and Müller, R. D., 2012. A global-scale
plate reorganization event at 105–100 Ma. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, 355, 283–298.
Mihalynuk, M. G., Nelson, J. A., and Diakow, L. J., 1994. Cache
Creek terrane entrapment: oroclinal paradox within the Canadian
Cordillera. Tectonics, 13(3), 575–595.
Müller, R. D., Sdrolias, M., Gaina, C., and Roest, W. R., 2008a.
Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world’s
ocean crust. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 9,
Q04006, doi:10.1029/2007GC001743.
Müller, R. D., Sdrolias, M., Gaina, C., Steinberger, B., and Heine,
C., 2008b. Long-term sea level fluctuations driven by ocean
basin dynamics. Science, 319(5868), 1357–1362.
Müller, R. D., Dutkiewicz, A., Seton, M., and Gaina, C., 2013. Seawater chemistry driven by supercontinent assembly, break-up
and dispersal. Geology, 41, 907–910.
Nakanishi, M., Tamaki, K., and Kobayashi, K., 1992a. Magnetic
anomaly lineations from Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in
the west central Pacific Ocean. Geophysical Journal International, 109(3), 701–719.
Nakanishi, M., Tamaki, K., and Kobayashi, K., 1992b. A new
Mesozoic isochron chart of the northwestern Pacific Ocean:
paleomagnetic and tectonic implications. Geophysical Research
Letters, 19(7), 693–696.
Nelson, J. A., and Mihalynuk, M., 1993. Cache Creek ocean: closure or enclosure? Geology, 21(2), 173.
Parsons, B., and Sclater, J. G., 1977. An analysis of the variation of
ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age. Journal of Geophysical Research, 82(5), 803–827.
Phipps Morgan, J., and Smith, W. H. F., 1992. Flattening of the
sea-floor depth-age curve as a response to asthenospheric flow.
Nature, 359(6395), 524–527.
Phipps Morgan, J., Morgan, W. J., and Price, E., 1995.
Hotspot melting generates both hotspot volcanism and a
hotspot swell? Journal of Geophysical Research, 100(B5),
8045–8062.
Schubert, G., and Sandwell, D., 1989. Crustal volumes of the continents and of oceanic and continental submarine plateaus. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 92, 234–246.
Seton, M., Müller, R. D., Zahirovic, S., Gaina, C., Torsvik, T.,
Shephard, G. E., Talsma, A. S., Gurnis, M., Turner, M., Maus,
S., and Chandler, M. T., 2012. Global continental and ocean
basin reconstructions since 200 Ma. Earth Science Reviews,
113, 212–270.
Spasojevic, S., and Gurnis, M., 2012. Sea level and vertical motion
of continents from dynamic earth models since the Late Cretaceous. AAPG Bulletin, 96(11), 2037–2064.
Stein, C., and Stein, S., 1992. A model for the global variation in
oceanic depth and heat flow with lithospheric age. Nature,
359(6391), 123–129.
Sykes, T. J., 1996. A correction for sediment load upon the ocean
floor: uniform versus varying sediment density estimations –
implications for isostatic correction. Marine Geology, 133(1),
35–49.
Taylor, B., 2006. The single largest oceanic plateau: Ontong JavaManihiki-Hikurangi. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 241
(3–4), 372–380.
Torsvik, T. H., Rousse, S., Labails, C., and Smethurst, M. A., 2009.
A new scheme for the opening of the south atlantic ocean and the
dissection of an aptian salt basin. Geophysical Journal International, 177(3), 1315–1333.
Turcotte, D. L., and Oxburgh, E. R., 1967. Finite amplitude convection cells and continental drift. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 28,
29–42.
Van der Voo, R., Spakman, W., and Bijwaard, H., 1999. Mesozoic
subducted slabs under Siberia. Nature, 397(6716), 246–249.
Viso, R. F., Larson, R. L., and Pockalny, R. A., 2005. Tectonic evolution of the Pacific-Phoenix-Farallon triple junction in the
South Pacific Ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 233
(1–2), 179.
Zorin, Y. A., 1999. Geodynamics of the western part of the
Mongolia-Okhotsk collisional belt, Trans-Baikal region
(Russia) and Mongolia. Tectonophysics, 306(1), 33–56.
Cross-references
Deep-sea Sediments
Energy Resources
Marginal Seas
Oceanic Spreading Centers
Paleoceanographic Proxies
Paleoceanography
Regional Marine Geology
Sea-Level
PALEOPRODUCTIVITY
Paul Loubere
Department of Anthropology, Northern Illinois
University, DeKalb, IL, USA
Definition
Biological productivity involves the synthesis of biogenic
materials (skeletal and nonskeletal). Paleoproductivity
refers to the record of synthesis in the past. Generally,
the term is applied to production that occurred prior to
times when direct measurements are available.
Introduction
Production can be primary, when organic matter is synthesized from inorganic antecedents (e.g., plant synthesis
based on chemicals and sunshine), or secondary, when it
is based on previously made organic matter. Most analysis
of paleoproductivity aims to reconstruct past changes in
primary production.
The interest in paleoproductivity stems mostly from
research into three different issues in paleo-oceanic/
paleoclimate studies. Ocean-basin-scale patterns of production reflect the location and extent of past/current systems. Also, regional changes provide information about
variation in exchange between deep and surface ocean
648
PALEOPRODUCTIVITY
P. (eds.), Alaskan North Slope Geology. Los Angeles: Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Pacific Section,
pp. 581–617.
Labails, C., Olivet, J., Aslanian, D., and Roest, W., 2010. An alternative early opening scenario for the Central Atlantic Ocean.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 297, 355–368.
Larson, R. L., and Chase, C. G., 1972. Late Mesozoic evolution of
the western Pacific. Geological Society of America Bulletin,
83, 3627–3644.
Lawver, L. A., Gahagan, L. M., and Dalziel, I. W. D., 2011.
A different look at gateways: Drake Passage and Australia/Antarctica. In Anderson, J. B., and Wellner, J. S. (eds.), Tectonic,
Climatic, and Cryospheric Evolution of the Antarctic Peninsula.
Washington, DC: AGU, Vol. 63, pp. 5–33.
Matthews, K. J., Seton, M., and Müller, R. D., 2012. A global-scale
plate reorganization event at 105–100 Ma. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, 355, 283–298.
Mihalynuk, M. G., Nelson, J. A., and Diakow, L. J., 1994. Cache
Creek terrane entrapment: oroclinal paradox within the Canadian
Cordillera. Tectonics, 13(3), 575–595.
Müller, R. D., Sdrolias, M., Gaina, C., and Roest, W. R., 2008a.
Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world’s
ocean crust. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 9,
Q04006, doi:10.1029/2007GC001743.
Müller, R. D., Sdrolias, M., Gaina, C., Steinberger, B., and Heine,
C., 2008b. Long-term sea level fluctuations driven by ocean
basin dynamics. Science, 319(5868), 1357–1362.
Müller, R. D., Dutkiewicz, A., Seton, M., and Gaina, C., 2013. Seawater chemistry driven by supercontinent assembly, break-up
and dispersal. Geology, 41, 907–910.
Nakanishi, M., Tamaki, K., and Kobayashi, K., 1992a. Magnetic
anomaly lineations from Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in
the west central Pacific Ocean. Geophysical Journal International, 109(3), 701–719.
Nakanishi, M., Tamaki, K., and Kobayashi, K., 1992b. A new
Mesozoic isochron chart of the northwestern Pacific Ocean:
paleomagnetic and tectonic implications. Geophysical Research
Letters, 19(7), 693–696.
Nelson, J. A., and Mihalynuk, M., 1993. Cache Creek ocean: closure or enclosure? Geology, 21(2), 173.
Parsons, B., and Sclater, J. G., 1977. An analysis of the variation of
ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age. Journal of Geophysical Research, 82(5), 803–827.
Phipps Morgan, J., and Smith, W. H. F., 1992. Flattening of the
sea-floor depth-age curve as a response to asthenospheric flow.
Nature, 359(6395), 524–527.
Phipps Morgan, J., Morgan, W. J., and Price, E., 1995.
Hotspot melting generates both hotspot volcanism and a
hotspot swell? Journal of Geophysical Research, 100(B5),
8045–8062.
Schubert, G., and Sandwell, D., 1989. Crustal volumes of the continents and of oceanic and continental submarine plateaus. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 92, 234–246.
Seton, M., Müller, R. D., Zahirovic, S., Gaina, C., Torsvik, T.,
Shephard, G. E., Talsma, A. S., Gurnis, M., Turner, M., Maus,
S., and Chandler, M. T., 2012. Global continental and ocean
basin reconstructions since 200 Ma. Earth Science Reviews,
113, 212–270.
Spasojevic, S., and Gurnis, M., 2012. Sea level and vertical motion
of continents from dynamic earth models since the Late Cretaceous. AAPG Bulletin, 96(11), 2037–2064.
Stein, C., and Stein, S., 1992. A model for the global variation in
oceanic depth and heat flow with lithospheric age. Nature,
359(6391), 123–129.
Sykes, T. J., 1996. A correction for sediment load upon the ocean
floor: uniform versus varying sediment density estimations –
implications for isostatic correction. Marine Geology, 133(1),
35–49.
Taylor, B., 2006. The single largest oceanic plateau: Ontong JavaManihiki-Hikurangi. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 241
(3–4), 372–380.
Torsvik, T. H., Rousse, S., Labails, C., and Smethurst, M. A., 2009.
A new scheme for the opening of the south atlantic ocean and the
dissection of an aptian salt basin. Geophysical Journal International, 177(3), 1315–1333.
Turcotte, D. L., and Oxburgh, E. R., 1967. Finite amplitude convection cells and continental drift. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 28,
29–42.
Van der Voo, R., Spakman, W., and Bijwaard, H., 1999. Mesozoic
subducted slabs under Siberia. Nature, 397(6716), 246–249.
Viso, R. F., Larson, R. L., and Pockalny, R. A., 2005. Tectonic evolution of the Pacific-Phoenix-Farallon triple junction in the
South Pacific Ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 233
(1–2), 179.
Zorin, Y. A., 1999. Geodynamics of the western part of the
Mongolia-Okhotsk collisional belt, Trans-Baikal region
(Russia) and Mongolia. Tectonophysics, 306(1), 33–56.
Cross-references
Deep-sea Sediments
Energy Resources
Marginal Seas
Oceanic Spreading Centers
Paleoceanographic Proxies
Paleoceanography
Regional Marine Geology
Sea-Level
PALEOPRODUCTIVITY
Paul Loubere
Department of Anthropology, Northern Illinois
University, DeKalb, IL, USA
Definition
Biological productivity involves the synthesis of biogenic
materials (skeletal and nonskeletal). Paleoproductivity
refers to the record of synthesis in the past. Generally,
the term is applied to production that occurred prior to
times when direct measurements are available.
Introduction
Production can be primary, when organic matter is synthesized from inorganic antecedents (e.g., plant synthesis
based on chemicals and sunshine), or secondary, when it
is based on previously made organic matter. Most analysis
of paleoproductivity aims to reconstruct past changes in
primary production.
The interest in paleoproductivity stems mostly from
research into three different issues in paleo-oceanic/
paleoclimate studies. Ocean-basin-scale patterns of production reflect the location and extent of past/current systems. Also, regional changes provide information about
variation in exchange between deep and surface ocean
648
PALEOPRODUCTIVITY