oxyhydroxides that precipitate directly from seawater.
Their thickness varies from less than 1 mm to about
20 cm. They form at water depths of 600–7,000 m on
the flanks of volcanic seamounts, ridges, and plateaus with
the thickest and most metal-rich crusts forming in depths
between 800 and 2,500 m (Hein et al., 2010). Due to their
slow growth rate of only 1–5 mm/million years (Hein and
Koschinsky, 2014), economic occurrences are limited to
old volcanic edifices. Many of these volcanic seamounts
are located within the EEZs of Pacific Island states with
fewer seamounts, and hence crusts, in the Atlantic and
Indian Ocean. Crusts have, in general, lower copper and
nickel concentrations than manganese nodules, and therefore, cobalt is the metal of greatest economic interest commonly exceeding values of 0.5 wt% cobalt. Other
potential by-products are the rare earth elements (REE),
platinum group elements, and tellurium (Te). Mining of
crusts seems technologically more difficult as crusts are
attached to a substrate rock, and dilution of the crusts by
the substrate needs to be minimized. On the other hand,
dispersion of sediments may not be a major issue of crust
mining due to the lack of sediments (see below). Technology for crust mining is still in a conceptual state (Hein and
Koschinsky, 2014).
Environmental concerns of deep-sea mining
To date no commercial mining activities have occurred
anywhere in the deep sea limiting a full assessment of
environmental impacts (Boschen et al., 2013). Nevertheless, some of the main impacts seem clear and are bound
to the disaggregation of the ore at the mine site, the lifting
to the surface vessel, and the dewatering of the ore slurry,
which may lead to (1) loss of habitat (possibly with species extinction), (2) the formation of plumes and
resedimentation, and (3) return water (discharge) and its
effects on pelagic and/or benthic fauna depending on the
depth of discharge (van Dover, 2010, 2011; Collins
et al., 2013). Pollution from ships, noise from surface or
seabed vehicles, and tailings disposal on land that accompanies the processing of all ores may also have negative
impacts on the environment.
It is important to note that the impacts will be different
for the various mineral types. While some ecosystems
may recover quickly (SMS sites), those in the abyssal
plains may take thousands of years or more to recover to
the original species richness and distribution. The potential impacts of manganese nodule mining have been investigated on various scales by studies such as the DOMES,
BIE, INDEX, DISCOL, and ATESEPP projects (see Hein
and Koschinsky, 2014 and references therein). During the
DISCOL study, an area of 11 km
2 was disturbed and monitored, the largest impacted area so far (Borowski and
Thiel, 1998; Thiel et al., 2001). For SMS, the most comprehensive study of potential mining impacts is reported
by the environmental impact assessment of Nautilus Minerals for its Solwara 1 deposit (see www.cares.nautilusminerals.com). As deep-sea mining is not yet occurring,
the process of defining the regulations for mining by the
ISA (Pandey, 2013; ISA, 2013b; Lodge et al., 2014) provides the opportunity for nongovernment organizations
and scientists to contribute input that helps shape the regulations beyond the codes of conducts that have been
issued by scientists in the past (Devey et al. 2007; IMMS,
2011). Comprehensive environmental impact assessment,
mitigation strategies, baseline studies, and long-term monitoring need to be implemented into the regulations. Naturally, the duration of the impact and the size of the
impacted area are of great influence. While mining for
manganese nodules would cover several hundreds of
square kilometers per year and for Co-rich ferromanganese crusts several tens of square kilometers per year for
a single mine site, future mining in the Solwara 1 SMS
project in Papua New Guinea would cover an area of only
0.112 km
2
.
Ongoing exploration activities
For The Area, only exploration contracts have been issued
by the ISA (Table 1; Figure 1). Up until March 2015,
26 applications have been approved out of which:
• Sixteen contracts for the exploration of polymetallic
nodules, 14 are signed and 2 are pending signature
(Table 1). Most of the contract areas (15) are located
in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone covering 1.171 million
km
2 and only one in the Central Indian Ocean
(77,000 km
2
). Of the 16 contractors, 8 are government
bodies, while the remaining 8 are private companies
sponsored by states. It is interesting to note that until
2011 only government bodies applied for exploration
contracts in The Area.
• Six exploration contracts, covering 10,000 km
2 each,
have been approved for the investigation of SMS in
The Area since 2011. All six contractors are government bodies and represent the states of China, Russia,
South Korea, France, India, and Germany. Four of the
contracts are for the Indian Ocean, the remaining two
for the central Atlantic. The contract for India still needs
to be signed.
• Four contracted areas for the exploration of cobalt-rich
manganese crusts, covering 3,000 km
2 each, have been
approved for government entities, signed by China,
Japan, Russia and Brazil. The Brazilian application is
in the Atlantic (Rio Grande Rise), while the other three
contract areas are located in the far Western Pacific.
These 26 approved contracts in The Area cover an area
of 1.24 million km
2
. This is as big as France, Great Britain,
and Germany combined. It should be noted that all contracts are exploration licenses, granted for a period of
15 years, and are subject to relinquishments over time.
Regulations for deep-sea mining have not been released,
despite the fact that the 6 earliest contracts for manganese
nodules will expire in 2016. At this time, the contractors
have to decide whether they want to start mining or extend
the exploration contract for another 5 years if justifications
warrant that extension.
MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES
477
Their thickness varies from less than 1 mm to about
20 cm. They form at water depths of 600–7,000 m on
the flanks of volcanic seamounts, ridges, and plateaus with
the thickest and most metal-rich crusts forming in depths
between 800 and 2,500 m (Hein et al., 2010). Due to their
slow growth rate of only 1–5 mm/million years (Hein and
Koschinsky, 2014), economic occurrences are limited to
old volcanic edifices. Many of these volcanic seamounts
are located within the EEZs of Pacific Island states with
fewer seamounts, and hence crusts, in the Atlantic and
Indian Ocean. Crusts have, in general, lower copper and
nickel concentrations than manganese nodules, and therefore, cobalt is the metal of greatest economic interest commonly exceeding values of 0.5 wt% cobalt. Other
potential by-products are the rare earth elements (REE),
platinum group elements, and tellurium (Te). Mining of
crusts seems technologically more difficult as crusts are
attached to a substrate rock, and dilution of the crusts by
the substrate needs to be minimized. On the other hand,
dispersion of sediments may not be a major issue of crust
mining due to the lack of sediments (see below). Technology for crust mining is still in a conceptual state (Hein and
Koschinsky, 2014).
Environmental concerns of deep-sea mining
To date no commercial mining activities have occurred
anywhere in the deep sea limiting a full assessment of
environmental impacts (Boschen et al., 2013). Nevertheless, some of the main impacts seem clear and are bound
to the disaggregation of the ore at the mine site, the lifting
to the surface vessel, and the dewatering of the ore slurry,
which may lead to (1) loss of habitat (possibly with species extinction), (2) the formation of plumes and
resedimentation, and (3) return water (discharge) and its
effects on pelagic and/or benthic fauna depending on the
depth of discharge (van Dover, 2010, 2011; Collins
et al., 2013). Pollution from ships, noise from surface or
seabed vehicles, and tailings disposal on land that accompanies the processing of all ores may also have negative
impacts on the environment.
It is important to note that the impacts will be different
for the various mineral types. While some ecosystems
may recover quickly (SMS sites), those in the abyssal
plains may take thousands of years or more to recover to
the original species richness and distribution. The potential impacts of manganese nodule mining have been investigated on various scales by studies such as the DOMES,
BIE, INDEX, DISCOL, and ATESEPP projects (see Hein
and Koschinsky, 2014 and references therein). During the
DISCOL study, an area of 11 km
2 was disturbed and monitored, the largest impacted area so far (Borowski and
Thiel, 1998; Thiel et al., 2001). For SMS, the most comprehensive study of potential mining impacts is reported
by the environmental impact assessment of Nautilus Minerals for its Solwara 1 deposit (see www.cares.nautilusminerals.com). As deep-sea mining is not yet occurring,
the process of defining the regulations for mining by the
ISA (Pandey, 2013; ISA, 2013b; Lodge et al., 2014) provides the opportunity for nongovernment organizations
and scientists to contribute input that helps shape the regulations beyond the codes of conducts that have been
issued by scientists in the past (Devey et al. 2007; IMMS,
2011). Comprehensive environmental impact assessment,
mitigation strategies, baseline studies, and long-term monitoring need to be implemented into the regulations. Naturally, the duration of the impact and the size of the
impacted area are of great influence. While mining for
manganese nodules would cover several hundreds of
square kilometers per year and for Co-rich ferromanganese crusts several tens of square kilometers per year for
a single mine site, future mining in the Solwara 1 SMS
project in Papua New Guinea would cover an area of only
0.112 km
2
.
Ongoing exploration activities
For The Area, only exploration contracts have been issued
by the ISA (Table 1; Figure 1). Up until March 2015,
26 applications have been approved out of which:
• Sixteen contracts for the exploration of polymetallic
nodules, 14 are signed and 2 are pending signature
(Table 1). Most of the contract areas (15) are located
in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone covering 1.171 million
km
2 and only one in the Central Indian Ocean
(77,000 km
2
). Of the 16 contractors, 8 are government
bodies, while the remaining 8 are private companies
sponsored by states. It is interesting to note that until
2011 only government bodies applied for exploration
contracts in The Area.
• Six exploration contracts, covering 10,000 km
2 each,
have been approved for the investigation of SMS in
The Area since 2011. All six contractors are government bodies and represent the states of China, Russia,
South Korea, France, India, and Germany. Four of the
contracts are for the Indian Ocean, the remaining two
for the central Atlantic. The contract for India still needs
to be signed.
• Four contracted areas for the exploration of cobalt-rich
manganese crusts, covering 3,000 km
2 each, have been
approved for government entities, signed by China,
Japan, Russia and Brazil. The Brazilian application is
in the Atlantic (Rio Grande Rise), while the other three
contract areas are located in the far Western Pacific.
These 26 approved contracts in The Area cover an area
of 1.24 million km
2
. This is as big as France, Great Britain,
and Germany combined. It should be noted that all contracts are exploration licenses, granted for a period of
15 years, and are subject to relinquishments over time.
Regulations for deep-sea mining have not been released,
despite the fact that the 6 earliest contracts for manganese
nodules will expire in 2016. At this time, the contractors
have to decide whether they want to start mining or extend
the exploration contract for another 5 years if justifications
warrant that extension.
MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES
477