Suess, E., Torres, M. E., Bohrmann, G., Collier, R. W., Greinert, J.,
Linke, P., Rehder, G., Trehu, A., Wallmann, K., Winckler, G.,
and Zuelger, E., 1999. Gas hydrate destabilization: enhanced
dewatering, benthic material turnover and large methane plumes
at the Cascadia convergent margin. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 170, 1–15.
Trask, P. D. (ed.), 1939. Recent Marine Sediments. Tulsa: AAPG.
736 p.
United Nations (UN), 1997. The Law of the Sea: United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea. Division for Ocean Affairs
and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs United Nations
Publication No. E.97.V.10, 294 p.
United Nations (UN), 2004. Marine Mineral Resources Scientific
Advances and Economic Perspectives. Unites Nations Division
for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal
Affairs, and the International Seabed Authority, ISBN:
976-610-712-2, 118 p.
Vail, P. R., Mitchum, R. M. Jr., and Thompson, S., 1977. Relative
changes of sea level from coastal onlap. In: Payton, C. E. (ed.),
1977: Seismic Stratigraphy – Application to Hydrocarbon
Exploration.American Association of Petroleum Geologists
(AAPG), Tulsa. Mem 26, 63–82.
Vine, F. J., and Matthews, D., 1963. Magnetic anomalies over oceanic ridges. Nature, 4897, 947–949.
Walther, J., 1893. Bionomie des Meeres. Beobachtungen über die
marinen Lebensbezirke und Existenzbedingungen. Einleitung
in die Geologie als historische Wissenschaft / Beobachtungen
über die Bildung der Gesteine und ihrer organischen
Einschlüsse. Jena: Fischer. 196 p.
Walther, J., 1894. Lithogenesis der Gegenwart. Beobachtungen
über die Bildung der Gesteine an der heutigen Erdoberfläche.
Einleitung in die Geologie als historische Wissenschaft/
Beobachtungen über die Bildung der Gesteine und ihrer
organischen Einschlüsse, Theil 3. Jena: Fischer, Vol. VII,
pp. 535–1055.
Wegener, A., 1915/1929/ 2005. Die Entstehung der Kontinente und
Ozeane. Reprint of the 1st ed. with handwritten comments of him
and of the 4th completely revised ed., Berlin: Borntraeger,
481 pp.
Wegener, A., 1966. The Origin of Continents and Oceans, Translation by J. Biram. Mineola: Dover Publications.
Wüst, G.,1936. Schichtung und Zirkulation des Atlantischen
Ozeans. Wiss. Ergebn. Dt. Atlant. Expedition VFS Meteor
1925–1927: 6(1), Berlin, 1–288.
Zonenshain, L., 2013. Paleogeodynamics: The Plate Tectonic Evolution of the Earth. Washington, DC: American Geophysical
Union. 218 pp.
MARINE GEOTOPE PROTECTION
Aarno Kotilainen
Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo, Finland
Synonyms
Marine geosites; Marine geotopes
Marine geotope is (1) an Earth science site at the seafloor
(modified after Erikstad, 1994) or a (2) specific site or area
at the seafloor that has significant geological and geomorphological value (modified after Stürm, 1994). Marine
geosite is a key locality or area, at the seafloor, showing
geological (and geomorphological) features of intrinsic
scientific interest that allow us to understand the key
stages in the evolution of the Earth (modified after Wimbledon and Smith-Meyer, 2012).
Marine geosites can be large or small, e.g., submarine
canyons, seamounts, or submarine moraines. Geological
and geomorphological features and their diversity (i.e.,
geodiversity) are of great importance for several reasons,
both in terrestrial and marine environments. Values of
geodiversity include intrinsic or existence value, cultural
value, aesthetic value, economic value, functional value,
and research/educational value (Gray, 2004). Geosites,
as well as landscapes, shaped and defined by their geology, form the geological heritage, which is a part of the
natural heritage of any country (Wimbledon and SmithMeyer, 2012), on land and at the seafloor. Geomorphological features and rocks are just as much part of natural heritage as animals and plants. Thus conservation of geosites
and geodiversity is justified and important also in marine
environment.
The conservation of geological and geomorphological
features, that is, geoconservation, has a long history. One
of the first geoconservation, by legal action, has taken
place already in 1819 in Scotland (McMillan et al.,
1999). Geoconservation has been a well-established activity in the terrestrial environment, but it has been earlier
largely absent in the marine environment. However, at
present there are already several marine protected areas
that are defined by geology. There are several national
and international programs for site inventories and protection of important geological sites, like UNESCO’s Global
Geoparks and IUGS Geosites Programmes. In addition
UNESCO keeps a World Heritage List of certain places
on Earth that have outstanding universal value and should
form part of the common heritage of humankind. That list
includes unique places like the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and Kvarken Archipelago in Finland, among others,
that make up the world’s marine heritage. Conservation of
both biological and geological components of nature
forms a basis for the sustainable use of marine resources,
sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in the
world’s oceans and seas, and is the responsibility of all
countries and their governments.
Bibliography
Erikstad, L., 1994. The building of an international airport in an area
of outstanding geological diversity and quality. In O’Halloran,
D. (ed.), Geological and Landscape Conservation. London:
Geological Society, pp. 47–51.
Gray, M., 2004. Geodiversity – Valuing and Conserving Abiotic
Nature. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate,
Chichester,West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England. 434 p.
McMillan, A. A., Gillanders, R. J., and Fairhurst, J. A., 1999. The
Building Stones of Edinburgh, 2nd edn. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
Geological Society.
Stürm, B., 1994. The geotope concept: geological nature conservation by town and country planning. In O’Halloran, D. (ed.), Geological and Landscape Conservation. London: Geological
Society, pp. 27–21.
448
MARINE GEOTOPE PROTECTION
Linke, P., Rehder, G., Trehu, A., Wallmann, K., Winckler, G.,
and Zuelger, E., 1999. Gas hydrate destabilization: enhanced
dewatering, benthic material turnover and large methane plumes
at the Cascadia convergent margin. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 170, 1–15.
Trask, P. D. (ed.), 1939. Recent Marine Sediments. Tulsa: AAPG.
736 p.
United Nations (UN), 1997. The Law of the Sea: United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea. Division for Ocean Affairs
and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs United Nations
Publication No. E.97.V.10, 294 p.
United Nations (UN), 2004. Marine Mineral Resources Scientific
Advances and Economic Perspectives. Unites Nations Division
for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal
Affairs, and the International Seabed Authority, ISBN:
976-610-712-2, 118 p.
Vail, P. R., Mitchum, R. M. Jr., and Thompson, S., 1977. Relative
changes of sea level from coastal onlap. In: Payton, C. E. (ed.),
1977: Seismic Stratigraphy – Application to Hydrocarbon
Exploration.American Association of Petroleum Geologists
(AAPG), Tulsa. Mem 26, 63–82.
Vine, F. J., and Matthews, D., 1963. Magnetic anomalies over oceanic ridges. Nature, 4897, 947–949.
Walther, J., 1893. Bionomie des Meeres. Beobachtungen über die
marinen Lebensbezirke und Existenzbedingungen. Einleitung
in die Geologie als historische Wissenschaft / Beobachtungen
über die Bildung der Gesteine und ihrer organischen
Einschlüsse. Jena: Fischer. 196 p.
Walther, J., 1894. Lithogenesis der Gegenwart. Beobachtungen
über die Bildung der Gesteine an der heutigen Erdoberfläche.
Einleitung in die Geologie als historische Wissenschaft/
Beobachtungen über die Bildung der Gesteine und ihrer
organischen Einschlüsse, Theil 3. Jena: Fischer, Vol. VII,
pp. 535–1055.
Wegener, A., 1915/1929/ 2005. Die Entstehung der Kontinente und
Ozeane. Reprint of the 1st ed. with handwritten comments of him
and of the 4th completely revised ed., Berlin: Borntraeger,
481 pp.
Wegener, A., 1966. The Origin of Continents and Oceans, Translation by J. Biram. Mineola: Dover Publications.
Wüst, G.,1936. Schichtung und Zirkulation des Atlantischen
Ozeans. Wiss. Ergebn. Dt. Atlant. Expedition VFS Meteor
1925–1927: 6(1), Berlin, 1–288.
Zonenshain, L., 2013. Paleogeodynamics: The Plate Tectonic Evolution of the Earth. Washington, DC: American Geophysical
Union. 218 pp.
MARINE GEOTOPE PROTECTION
Aarno Kotilainen
Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo, Finland
Synonyms
Marine geosites; Marine geotopes
Marine geotope is (1) an Earth science site at the seafloor
(modified after Erikstad, 1994) or a (2) specific site or area
at the seafloor that has significant geological and geomorphological value (modified after Stürm, 1994). Marine
geosite is a key locality or area, at the seafloor, showing
geological (and geomorphological) features of intrinsic
scientific interest that allow us to understand the key
stages in the evolution of the Earth (modified after Wimbledon and Smith-Meyer, 2012).
Marine geosites can be large or small, e.g., submarine
canyons, seamounts, or submarine moraines. Geological
and geomorphological features and their diversity (i.e.,
geodiversity) are of great importance for several reasons,
both in terrestrial and marine environments. Values of
geodiversity include intrinsic or existence value, cultural
value, aesthetic value, economic value, functional value,
and research/educational value (Gray, 2004). Geosites,
as well as landscapes, shaped and defined by their geology, form the geological heritage, which is a part of the
natural heritage of any country (Wimbledon and SmithMeyer, 2012), on land and at the seafloor. Geomorphological features and rocks are just as much part of natural heritage as animals and plants. Thus conservation of geosites
and geodiversity is justified and important also in marine
environment.
The conservation of geological and geomorphological
features, that is, geoconservation, has a long history. One
of the first geoconservation, by legal action, has taken
place already in 1819 in Scotland (McMillan et al.,
1999). Geoconservation has been a well-established activity in the terrestrial environment, but it has been earlier
largely absent in the marine environment. However, at
present there are already several marine protected areas
that are defined by geology. There are several national
and international programs for site inventories and protection of important geological sites, like UNESCO’s Global
Geoparks and IUGS Geosites Programmes. In addition
UNESCO keeps a World Heritage List of certain places
on Earth that have outstanding universal value and should
form part of the common heritage of humankind. That list
includes unique places like the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and Kvarken Archipelago in Finland, among others,
that make up the world’s marine heritage. Conservation of
both biological and geological components of nature
forms a basis for the sustainable use of marine resources,
sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in the
world’s oceans and seas, and is the responsibility of all
countries and their governments.
Bibliography
Erikstad, L., 1994. The building of an international airport in an area
of outstanding geological diversity and quality. In O’Halloran,
D. (ed.), Geological and Landscape Conservation. London:
Geological Society, pp. 47–51.
Gray, M., 2004. Geodiversity – Valuing and Conserving Abiotic
Nature. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate,
Chichester,West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England. 434 p.
McMillan, A. A., Gillanders, R. J., and Fairhurst, J. A., 1999. The
Building Stones of Edinburgh, 2nd edn. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
Geological Society.
Stürm, B., 1994. The geotope concept: geological nature conservation by town and country planning. In O’Halloran, D. (ed.), Geological and Landscape Conservation. London: Geological
Society, pp. 27–21.
448
MARINE GEOTOPE PROTECTION