marine parks in a number of countries. Marinas are a specialized type of port that takes many forms primarily dedicated to recreation. Recently the concept has been
expanded with the use of Belgian and Dutch contractors
in the construction of a 5.72
2 km residential and recreational complex in the form of a palm off the shore of
Kuwait (Figure 1d).
Summary, conclusions, and the future
The time between when humans first utilized the varied
resources of the coastal zone and when they first consciously began its modification (engineering) consumed
most of human history. However, once such modification
began, change progressed rapidly. Today, coastal reclamation projects dominate many coastal sites, ports are numerous in coastal countries, and protective structures front
many shorelines. Further, urban waterfronts which reflect
a great variety of modern-day activities – industry, commerce, housing, recreation – also demonstrate the complexity of modern-day engineered coasts.
Although most coastal engineering has been in support
of such normal endeavors, much of it is in response to catastrophic events – e.g., landslides, hurricanes and
typhoons, earthquakes, and tsunami. Recent examples
include the hurricane/flooding reconstructions from
Katrina in New Orleans and Sandy in the northeastern
United States and the reconstructions resulting from the
tsunamis in Southeast Asia and Japan. The style of engineering in response to coastal disasters also has a cultural
component that differs among countries (Bijker, 2007).
Because this summary paper about coastal engineering
has only been able to touch on selected characteristics of
the topic, it is recommended that the reader consult other,
more definitive, treatments such as Artificial Structures
and Shorelines (Walker, 1988) and, especially, History
and Heritage of Coastal Engineering (Kraus, 1996). The
Artificial Structures volume demonstrates how coastal
engineers have impacted the shorelines of 48 countries
around the world, whereas the History and Heritage volume provides detailed and well-illustrated histories of
coastal engineering for 15 major countries.
Engineering and coastal modification in the future will
continue to evolve as environmental conditions such as
sea-level and storminess change, as technology develops,
and as the attitudes of humans vis-à-vis the coastal zone
modify. The recent acceptance of the importance of
coastal wetlands impact on reclamation and the trend
toward soft engineering are but two examples.
Bibliography
Bijker, W., 2007. American and Dutch coastal engineering: differences in risk conception and differences in technological culture.
Social Studies of Science, 37, 143–151.
Bird, E. C. F., 1996. Beach Management. Chichester: Wiley.
Bird, E. C. F., and Schwartz, M. L. (eds.), 1985. The World’s Coastline. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Chapman, D. M., 1982. Land reclamation. In Schwartz, M. L. (ed.),
Encyclopedia of Beaches and Coastal Environments.
Stroudsburg: Hutchinson & Ross, pp. 513–516.
El-Sammak, A., and Tucker, M., 2002. Ooids from Turkey and
Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean and a love-story of Antony
and Cleopatra. Facies, 46(1), 217–227.
Finkl, C. W., and Walker, H. J., 2002. Beach nourishment. In Chen,
J., Eisma, D., Hotta, K., and Walker, H. (eds.), Engineered
Coasts. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 1–22.
French, P. W., 2001. Coastal Defences: Processes, Problems and
Solutions. London: Routledge.
Gourlay, M. R., 1996. History of coastal engineering in Australia. In
Kraus, N. C. (ed.), History and Heritage of Coastal Engineering.
New York: ASCE, pp. 1–88.
Halvany, M. G., 2009. Wetlands and reclamation. In International
Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 241–246. Downloaded on December 27, 2012 from http://
www.sciencedirect.com.lib.lsu.edu
Harris, L. E., 1957. Land drainage and reclamation. In Singer, C.,
Holmyard, E., Hall, A., and Williams, T. (eds.),
A History of Technology. London: Oxford University Press,
pp. 300–323.
Horikawa, K., 1978. Coastal Engineering. New York: Wiley.
Kraus, N. C. (ed.), 1996. History and Heritage of Coastal Engineering. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 603 pp.
National Research Council, 1990. Managing Coastal Erosion.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
NGIA, 2012. World Port Index. Springfield, VA: National
Geospatial Intelligence Agency. Pub. 150.
Sarton, G., 1960. A History of Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Shapiro, H. A., 1984. Coastal area management in Japan: an overview. Coastal Zone Management Journal, 12, 19–56.
Stive, M. J. F., and Waterman, R. E., 2002. The Netherlands: the
Zuyder Zee project. In Chen, J., Eisma, D., Hotta, K., and
Walker, H. (eds.), Engineered Coasts. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 279–308.
U. S. Army, 1977. Shore Protection Manual. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Ver Plank, W. E., 1958. Salt in California. San Francisco: Division
of Mines, State of California. Bulletin 175.
Viles, H., and Spencer, T., 1995. Coastal Problems. London:
Edward Arnold.
Volker, A., 1982. Polders: an ancient approach to land reclamation.
Natural Resources, 18, 2–13.
Walker, H. J. (ed.), 1988. Artificial Structures and Shorelines. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 708 pp.
Walker, H. J., 2002. Marinas, sea-level reservoirs, solar salt pans
and other artificial shorelines. In Chen, J., Eisma, D., Hotta,
K., and Walker, H. (eds.), Engineered Coasts. Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 151–183.
Walker, H. J., 2012. In defense of an island: Kojima’s fight against
the sea. Focus, 55, 11–18.
Walker, H. J., and McGraw, M., 2010. Reclamation and the
coastal zone with emphasis on the United States of America.
In Piastra, S. (ed.), Land Reclamations: Geo-Historical
Issues in a Global Perspective. Bologna: Pàtron Editore,
pp. 137–167.
Cross-references
Beach
Beach Processes
Coastal Engineering
230
ENGINEERED COASTS
expanded with the use of Belgian and Dutch contractors
in the construction of a 5.72
2 km residential and recreational complex in the form of a palm off the shore of
Kuwait (Figure 1d).
Summary, conclusions, and the future
The time between when humans first utilized the varied
resources of the coastal zone and when they first consciously began its modification (engineering) consumed
most of human history. However, once such modification
began, change progressed rapidly. Today, coastal reclamation projects dominate many coastal sites, ports are numerous in coastal countries, and protective structures front
many shorelines. Further, urban waterfronts which reflect
a great variety of modern-day activities – industry, commerce, housing, recreation – also demonstrate the complexity of modern-day engineered coasts.
Although most coastal engineering has been in support
of such normal endeavors, much of it is in response to catastrophic events – e.g., landslides, hurricanes and
typhoons, earthquakes, and tsunami. Recent examples
include the hurricane/flooding reconstructions from
Katrina in New Orleans and Sandy in the northeastern
United States and the reconstructions resulting from the
tsunamis in Southeast Asia and Japan. The style of engineering in response to coastal disasters also has a cultural
component that differs among countries (Bijker, 2007).
Because this summary paper about coastal engineering
has only been able to touch on selected characteristics of
the topic, it is recommended that the reader consult other,
more definitive, treatments such as Artificial Structures
and Shorelines (Walker, 1988) and, especially, History
and Heritage of Coastal Engineering (Kraus, 1996). The
Artificial Structures volume demonstrates how coastal
engineers have impacted the shorelines of 48 countries
around the world, whereas the History and Heritage volume provides detailed and well-illustrated histories of
coastal engineering for 15 major countries.
Engineering and coastal modification in the future will
continue to evolve as environmental conditions such as
sea-level and storminess change, as technology develops,
and as the attitudes of humans vis-à-vis the coastal zone
modify. The recent acceptance of the importance of
coastal wetlands impact on reclamation and the trend
toward soft engineering are but two examples.
Bibliography
Bijker, W., 2007. American and Dutch coastal engineering: differences in risk conception and differences in technological culture.
Social Studies of Science, 37, 143–151.
Bird, E. C. F., 1996. Beach Management. Chichester: Wiley.
Bird, E. C. F., and Schwartz, M. L. (eds.), 1985. The World’s Coastline. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Chapman, D. M., 1982. Land reclamation. In Schwartz, M. L. (ed.),
Encyclopedia of Beaches and Coastal Environments.
Stroudsburg: Hutchinson & Ross, pp. 513–516.
El-Sammak, A., and Tucker, M., 2002. Ooids from Turkey and
Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean and a love-story of Antony
and Cleopatra. Facies, 46(1), 217–227.
Finkl, C. W., and Walker, H. J., 2002. Beach nourishment. In Chen,
J., Eisma, D., Hotta, K., and Walker, H. (eds.), Engineered
Coasts. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 1–22.
French, P. W., 2001. Coastal Defences: Processes, Problems and
Solutions. London: Routledge.
Gourlay, M. R., 1996. History of coastal engineering in Australia. In
Kraus, N. C. (ed.), History and Heritage of Coastal Engineering.
New York: ASCE, pp. 1–88.
Halvany, M. G., 2009. Wetlands and reclamation. In International
Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
pp. 241–246. Downloaded on December 27, 2012 from http://
www.sciencedirect.com.lib.lsu.edu
Harris, L. E., 1957. Land drainage and reclamation. In Singer, C.,
Holmyard, E., Hall, A., and Williams, T. (eds.),
A History of Technology. London: Oxford University Press,
pp. 300–323.
Horikawa, K., 1978. Coastal Engineering. New York: Wiley.
Kraus, N. C. (ed.), 1996. History and Heritage of Coastal Engineering. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 603 pp.
National Research Council, 1990. Managing Coastal Erosion.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
NGIA, 2012. World Port Index. Springfield, VA: National
Geospatial Intelligence Agency. Pub. 150.
Sarton, G., 1960. A History of Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Shapiro, H. A., 1984. Coastal area management in Japan: an overview. Coastal Zone Management Journal, 12, 19–56.
Stive, M. J. F., and Waterman, R. E., 2002. The Netherlands: the
Zuyder Zee project. In Chen, J., Eisma, D., Hotta, K., and
Walker, H. (eds.), Engineered Coasts. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 279–308.
U. S. Army, 1977. Shore Protection Manual. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Ver Plank, W. E., 1958. Salt in California. San Francisco: Division
of Mines, State of California. Bulletin 175.
Viles, H., and Spencer, T., 1995. Coastal Problems. London:
Edward Arnold.
Volker, A., 1982. Polders: an ancient approach to land reclamation.
Natural Resources, 18, 2–13.
Walker, H. J. (ed.), 1988. Artificial Structures and Shorelines. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 708 pp.
Walker, H. J., 2002. Marinas, sea-level reservoirs, solar salt pans
and other artificial shorelines. In Chen, J., Eisma, D., Hotta,
K., and Walker, H. (eds.), Engineered Coasts. Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 151–183.
Walker, H. J., 2012. In defense of an island: Kojima’s fight against
the sea. Focus, 55, 11–18.
Walker, H. J., and McGraw, M., 2010. Reclamation and the
coastal zone with emphasis on the United States of America.
In Piastra, S. (ed.), Land Reclamations: Geo-Historical
Issues in a Global Perspective. Bologna: Pàtron Editore,
pp. 137–167.
Cross-references
Beach
Beach Processes
Coastal Engineering
230
ENGINEERED COASTS