Nichol, S. L., Boyd, R., and Penland, S., 1996. Sequence stratigraphy of a coastal-plain incised valley estuary: Lake Calcasieu
Louisiana. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 66(4), 847–857.
Orton, G. J., and Reading, H. G., 1993. Variability of deltaic processes in terms of sediment supply, with particular emphasis on
grain size. Sedimentology, 40, 475–512.
Penland, S., Boyd, R., and Suter, J. R., 1988. Transgressive depositional systems of the Mississippi delta plain: a model for barrier
shoreline and shelf sand development. Journal of Sedimentary
Research, 58, 932–949.
Reineck, H. E., and Singh, I. B., 1973. Depositional Sedimentary
Environments with Reference to Terrigenous Clastics. New
York: Springer.
Rich, J. L., 1923. Shoestring sands of eastern Kansas. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 7, 103–113.
Shaw, J. B., and Mohrig, D., 2014. The importance of erosion in distributary channel network growth, Wax Lake Delta, Louisiana,
USA. Geology, 42, 31–34.
Stanley, D. J., and Warne, A. G., 1997. Holocene sea-level change
and early human utilization of deltas. Geological Society of
American Today, 7, 1–7.
Suter, J. R., 1994. Deltaic coasts. In Carter, R. W. G., and
Woodroffe, C. D. (eds.), Coastal Evolution: Late Quaternary
Shoreline Morphodynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, Tulsa, pp. 87–114.
Suter, J. R., Berryhill, H. L. Jr., and Penland, S., 1987. Late quaternary sea-level fluctuations and depositional sequences, southwest louisiana continental shelf. In Nummedal, D., Pilkey,
O. H., and Howard, J. D. (eds.), Sea-Level Fluctuation and
Coastal Evolution. Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists. Special Publication, Tulsa, OK, 41, pp. 199–219.
Syvitski, J. P., Kettner, A. J., Overeem, I., Hutton, E. W., Hannon,
M. T., Brakenridge, G. R., and Nicholls, R. J., 2009. Sinking
deltas due to human activities. Nature Geoscience, 2, 681–686.
Teatini, P., Castelletto, N., Ferronato, M., Gambolati, G., Janna, C.,
Cairo, E., and Bottazzi, F., 2011. Geomechanical response to
seasonal gas storage in depleted reservoirs: a case study in the
Po River basin, Italy. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth
Surface, 116(F2), 2003–2012.
Törnqvist, T. E., Wallace, D. J., Storms, J. E., Wallinga, J., Van
Dam, R. L., Blaauw, M., and Snijders, E. M., 2008. Mississippi
Delta subsidence primarily caused by compaction of Holocene
strata. Nature Geoscience, 1, 173–176.
Tweel, A. W., and Turner, R. E., 2012. Watershed land use and
river engineering drive wetland formation and loss in the Mississippi River birdfoot delta. Limnology and Oceanography, 57,
18–28.
Tye, R. S., and Coleman, J. M., 1989. Depositional processes and
stratigraphy of fluvially dominated lacustrine deltas: Mississippi
Delta plain. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 59, 973–996.
van Heerden, I., and Roberts, H. H., 1988. Facies development
Atchafalaya delta, Louisiana: a modern bayhead delta. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists. 72, 439–453.
White, D., 1993. Vascular plant community development on
mudcats in the Mississippi River delta, Louisiana, USA. Aquatic
Botany, 45, 171–194.
Wright, L. D., 1977. Sediment transport and deposition at river
mouths: a synthesis. Geological Society of America Bulletin,
88, 857–868.
Wright, L. D., 1985. River deltas. In Davis, R. A. (ed.), Coastal Sedimentary Environments. New York: Springer, pp. 1–76.
Wright, L. D., and Coleman, J. M., 1973. Variations in morphology
of major river deltas as functions of ocean wave and river discharge regimes. American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Bulletin, 57, 370–398.
Zhou, L., Liu, J., Saito, Y., Zhang, Z., Chu, H., and Hu, G., 2014.
Coastal erosion as a major sediment supplier to continental
shelves: example from the abandoned Old Huanghe (Yellow
River) delta. Continental Shelf Research, 82, 43–59.
Cross-references
Beach Processes
Coasts
Estuary, Estuarine Hydrodynamics
Lagoons
Marine Regression
Marine Sedimentary Basins
Sediment Transport Models
Shelf
Waves
DEPLETED MANTLE
Andreas Stracke
Westphalian Wilhelms-University, Institute of
Mineralogy, Münster, Germany
Definition
Depleted mantle: The depleted mantle is the part of
Earth’s mantle from which basaltic melt has been
extracted in one or multiple melting events at, for example, mid-ocean ridges, hot spots, or island arcs. Elements
that do not fit into the crystal lattice of mantle minerals,
the so-called incompatible elements, are preferentially
incorporated into the melt and thus removed from the
mantle, leaving the latter depleted with respect to these
elements. This residual depleted mantle amounts to anywhere between 30 % and 100 % of Earth’s mantle.
Basic facts about Earth’s mantle
Earth’s mantle extends from the core-mantle boundary at
2900 km depth, the Gutenberg discontinuity, to the base
of Earth’s crust, the Mohorovičić discontinuity. With
about two-thirds of Earth’s mass, the mantle is the largest
silicate reservoir of our planet. Earth’s most abundant
elements, O, Mg, Si, Fe, Ca, and Al are the main constituents of Earth’s mantle (Palme and O’Neill, 2014). The
mantle is mostly peridotitic in composition, with varying
mineral assemblage that adapts to the large range of
pressure-temperature conditions in the mantle. At upper
mantle pressures, a typical mantle peridotite with a density
of 3300 kg per m
3 is made up of about 55 % olivine, 35 %
ortho- and clinopyroxene, and 5–10 % Al-bearing phase
such as plagioclase, spinel, or garnet. At the core-mantle
boundary, the mantle is mostly composed of the
high-pressure minerals perovskite and ferropericlase and
has a density of about 5600 kg per m
3
.
Although the mantle is solid over its entire depth range,
it convects in response to density gradients between
Earth’s cold surface and hot interior. Thermal mantle convection is the primary agent of cooling of the Earth and
transports hot mantle from the deep interior into shallower
182
DEPLETED MANTLE
Louisiana. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 66(4), 847–857.
Orton, G. J., and Reading, H. G., 1993. Variability of deltaic processes in terms of sediment supply, with particular emphasis on
grain size. Sedimentology, 40, 475–512.
Penland, S., Boyd, R., and Suter, J. R., 1988. Transgressive depositional systems of the Mississippi delta plain: a model for barrier
shoreline and shelf sand development. Journal of Sedimentary
Research, 58, 932–949.
Reineck, H. E., and Singh, I. B., 1973. Depositional Sedimentary
Environments with Reference to Terrigenous Clastics. New
York: Springer.
Rich, J. L., 1923. Shoestring sands of eastern Kansas. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 7, 103–113.
Shaw, J. B., and Mohrig, D., 2014. The importance of erosion in distributary channel network growth, Wax Lake Delta, Louisiana,
USA. Geology, 42, 31–34.
Stanley, D. J., and Warne, A. G., 1997. Holocene sea-level change
and early human utilization of deltas. Geological Society of
American Today, 7, 1–7.
Suter, J. R., 1994. Deltaic coasts. In Carter, R. W. G., and
Woodroffe, C. D. (eds.), Coastal Evolution: Late Quaternary
Shoreline Morphodynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, Tulsa, pp. 87–114.
Suter, J. R., Berryhill, H. L. Jr., and Penland, S., 1987. Late quaternary sea-level fluctuations and depositional sequences, southwest louisiana continental shelf. In Nummedal, D., Pilkey,
O. H., and Howard, J. D. (eds.), Sea-Level Fluctuation and
Coastal Evolution. Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists. Special Publication, Tulsa, OK, 41, pp. 199–219.
Syvitski, J. P., Kettner, A. J., Overeem, I., Hutton, E. W., Hannon,
M. T., Brakenridge, G. R., and Nicholls, R. J., 2009. Sinking
deltas due to human activities. Nature Geoscience, 2, 681–686.
Teatini, P., Castelletto, N., Ferronato, M., Gambolati, G., Janna, C.,
Cairo, E., and Bottazzi, F., 2011. Geomechanical response to
seasonal gas storage in depleted reservoirs: a case study in the
Po River basin, Italy. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth
Surface, 116(F2), 2003–2012.
Törnqvist, T. E., Wallace, D. J., Storms, J. E., Wallinga, J., Van
Dam, R. L., Blaauw, M., and Snijders, E. M., 2008. Mississippi
Delta subsidence primarily caused by compaction of Holocene
strata. Nature Geoscience, 1, 173–176.
Tweel, A. W., and Turner, R. E., 2012. Watershed land use and
river engineering drive wetland formation and loss in the Mississippi River birdfoot delta. Limnology and Oceanography, 57,
18–28.
Tye, R. S., and Coleman, J. M., 1989. Depositional processes and
stratigraphy of fluvially dominated lacustrine deltas: Mississippi
Delta plain. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 59, 973–996.
van Heerden, I., and Roberts, H. H., 1988. Facies development
Atchafalaya delta, Louisiana: a modern bayhead delta. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists. 72, 439–453.
White, D., 1993. Vascular plant community development on
mudcats in the Mississippi River delta, Louisiana, USA. Aquatic
Botany, 45, 171–194.
Wright, L. D., 1977. Sediment transport and deposition at river
mouths: a synthesis. Geological Society of America Bulletin,
88, 857–868.
Wright, L. D., 1985. River deltas. In Davis, R. A. (ed.), Coastal Sedimentary Environments. New York: Springer, pp. 1–76.
Wright, L. D., and Coleman, J. M., 1973. Variations in morphology
of major river deltas as functions of ocean wave and river discharge regimes. American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Bulletin, 57, 370–398.
Zhou, L., Liu, J., Saito, Y., Zhang, Z., Chu, H., and Hu, G., 2014.
Coastal erosion as a major sediment supplier to continental
shelves: example from the abandoned Old Huanghe (Yellow
River) delta. Continental Shelf Research, 82, 43–59.
Cross-references
Beach Processes
Coasts
Estuary, Estuarine Hydrodynamics
Lagoons
Marine Regression
Marine Sedimentary Basins
Sediment Transport Models
Shelf
Waves
DEPLETED MANTLE
Andreas Stracke
Westphalian Wilhelms-University, Institute of
Mineralogy, Münster, Germany
Definition
Depleted mantle: The depleted mantle is the part of
Earth’s mantle from which basaltic melt has been
extracted in one or multiple melting events at, for example, mid-ocean ridges, hot spots, or island arcs. Elements
that do not fit into the crystal lattice of mantle minerals,
the so-called incompatible elements, are preferentially
incorporated into the melt and thus removed from the
mantle, leaving the latter depleted with respect to these
elements. This residual depleted mantle amounts to anywhere between 30 % and 100 % of Earth’s mantle.
Basic facts about Earth’s mantle
Earth’s mantle extends from the core-mantle boundary at
2900 km depth, the Gutenberg discontinuity, to the base
of Earth’s crust, the Mohorovičić discontinuity. With
about two-thirds of Earth’s mass, the mantle is the largest
silicate reservoir of our planet. Earth’s most abundant
elements, O, Mg, Si, Fe, Ca, and Al are the main constituents of Earth’s mantle (Palme and O’Neill, 2014). The
mantle is mostly peridotitic in composition, with varying
mineral assemblage that adapts to the large range of
pressure-temperature conditions in the mantle. At upper
mantle pressures, a typical mantle peridotite with a density
of 3300 kg per m
3 is made up of about 55 % olivine, 35 %
ortho- and clinopyroxene, and 5–10 % Al-bearing phase
such as plagioclase, spinel, or garnet. At the core-mantle
boundary, the mantle is mostly composed of the
high-pressure minerals perovskite and ferropericlase and
has a density of about 5600 kg per m
3
.
Although the mantle is solid over its entire depth range,
it convects in response to density gradients between
Earth’s cold surface and hot interior. Thermal mantle convection is the primary agent of cooling of the Earth and
transports hot mantle from the deep interior into shallower
182
DEPLETED MANTLE