Azam, F., and Malfatti, F., 2007. Microbial structuring of marine
ecosystems. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 5, 782–791.
Bange, H. W., Naqvi, S. W. A., and Codispoti, L. A., 2005. The
nitrogen cycle in the Arabian Sea. Progress in Oceanography,
65, 145–158.
Bauer, J. E., and Bianchi, T. S., 2011. Dissolved organic carbon
cycling and transformation. In Wolanski, E., and McLusky,
D. S. (eds.), Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science. Waltham: Academic Press, Vol. 5, pp. 7–67.
Bauer, J. E., and Druffel, E. R. M., 1998. Ocean margins as a significant source of organic matter to the deep open ocean. Nature,
392, 482–485.
Boesch, D. F., 2002. Challenges and opportunities for science in
reducing nutrient over-enrichment of coastal ecosystems. Estuaries, 25, 886–900.
Bruland, K. W., Rue, E. L., Smith, G. J., and Ditullio, G. R., 2005.
Iron, macronutrients and diatom blooms in the Peru upwelling
regime: brown and blue waters of Peru. Marine Chemistry, 93,
81–103.
Chen, C. T. A., Liu, K. K., and Macdonald, R., 2003. Continental
margin exchanges. In Fasham, M. J. R. (ed.), Ocean Biogeochemistry. Berlin: Springer, pp. 53–97.
Dugdale, R. C., and Goering, J. J., 1967. Uptake of new and
regenerated forms of nitrogen in primary productivity. Limnology and Oceanography, 12, 196–206.
Fasham, M. J. R., Balino, B. M., and Bowles, M. C., 2001. A new
vision of ocean biogeochemistry after a decade of the Joint
Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS). AMBIO Special Report,
10, 4–31.
GEOHAB, 2001. Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful
Algal Blooms, Science Plan. Baltimore and Paris: SCOR and
IOC, 87 pp.
GEOTRACES,
2006.
GEOTRACES
Science
Plan.
Baltimore, MD: Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research
(SCOR). 79 pp.
GLOBEC, 1997. Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics Science Plan.
IGBP Report No. 40. Stockholm: IGBP Secretariat, 83 pp.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Mumby, P. J., Hooten, A. J., Steneck, R. S.,
Greenfield, P., Gomez, E., Harvell, C. D., Sale, P. F., Edwards,
A. J., Caldeira, K., Knowlton, N., Eakin, C. M., Iglesias-Prieto,
R., Muthiga, N., Bradbury, R. H., Dubi, A., and Hatziolos,
M. E., 2007. Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean
acidification. Science, 318, 1737–1742.
Hopkinson, C. S., and Vallino, J. J., 2005. Efficient export of carbon
to the deep ocean through dissolved organic matter. Nature, 433,
142–145.
IMBER, 2005. IMBER Science Plan and Implementation Strategy.
IGBP Report No. 52. Stockholm: IGBP Secretariat, 76 pp.
IMBER, 2010. Supplement to the IMBER Science Plan and Implementation Strategy. IGBP report no. 52A. Stockholm: IGBP
Secretariat, 36 pp.
LOICZ, 2005. LOICZ Science Plan and Implementation Strategy.
IGBP report 51/IHDP report no. 18. Stockholm: IGBP Secretariat, 60 pp.
Morel, F. M. M., Milligan, A. J., and Saito, M. A., 2003. Marine
bioinorganic chemistry: the role of trace metals in the oceanic
cycles of major nutrients. In Elderfield, H. (ed.), The Oceans
and Marine Geochemistry, Treatise on Geochemistry. Oxford:
Elsevier, pp. 113–143.
Naqvi, S. W. A., Bange, H. W., Farias, L., Monterio, P. M. S., Scranton, M. I., and Zhang, J., 2010. Marine hypoxia/anoxia as a
source of CH 4 and N 2 O. Biogeosciences, 7, 2159–2190.
Redfield, A. C., Ketchum, B. H., and Richards, F. A., 1963. The
influence of organisms on the composition of sea-water. In Hill,
M. N. (ed.), The Sea. New York: Interscience, pp. 26–77.
Samiento, J. L., and Gruber, N., 2006. Ocean Biogeochemical
Dynamics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Syvitski, J. P. M., Vorosmarty, C., Kettner, A. J., and Green, P.,
2005. Impacts of humans on the flux of terrestrial sediment to
the global coastal ocean. Science, 308, 376–380.
Thomas, H., Bozec, Y., Elkalay, K., and de Baar, H. J. W., 2004.
Enhanced open ocean storage of CO 2 from shelf sea pumping.
Science, 304, 1005–1008.
Zhang, J., Liu, S. M., Ren, J. L., Wu, Y., and Zhang, G. L., 2007.
Nutrient gradients from the eutrophic Changjiang (Yangtze
River) Estuary to the oligotrophic Kuroshio waters and
re-evaluation of budgets for the East China Sea. Progress in
Oceanography, 74, 449–478.
Cross-references
Coasts
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
Export Production
Ocean Acidification
Ocean Margin Systems
Shelf
Upwelling
COASTAL ENGINEERING
Louise Wallendorf
Hydromechanics Laboratory, United States Naval
Academy, Annapolis, MD, USA
Definition
Coastal Engineering is the civil engineering design of
structures to protect or restore a shoreline from the effects
of erosion.
Introduction
Coastal engineering was formally recognized as a specialty of civil engineering with the birth of the International Conference of Coastal Engineering in 1950.
Informally man has been building structures at the border
of the land and sea for centuries; the history and heritage
of coastal engineering through 1990 is documented for
15 countries in the world in the hope that the evolution
of knowledge can be transferred to future generations
(Kraus, 1996). The world population has grown from 2.6
billion in 1950 and to over seven billion in 2014 (United
Nations, 2010; NOAA, 2013). In addition, populations
are concentrated in coastal watersheds; for example, more
than 40 % of cities with populations over 500,000 are
located on the world’s coastlines (NOAA, 2013). The
increased population density and associated shoreline
development are interfering with natural coastal processes
and ecology.
Coastal engineers are now incorporating design elements that both prevent coastal erosion and create a more
natural environment sensitive to the site. Coastal engineers work with biologists, geologists, coastal managers,
lawyers, oceanographers, and the local population to create designs.
COASTAL ENGINEERING
99
ecosystems. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 5, 782–791.
Bange, H. W., Naqvi, S. W. A., and Codispoti, L. A., 2005. The
nitrogen cycle in the Arabian Sea. Progress in Oceanography,
65, 145–158.
Bauer, J. E., and Bianchi, T. S., 2011. Dissolved organic carbon
cycling and transformation. In Wolanski, E., and McLusky,
D. S. (eds.), Treatise on Estuarine and Coastal Science. Waltham: Academic Press, Vol. 5, pp. 7–67.
Bauer, J. E., and Druffel, E. R. M., 1998. Ocean margins as a significant source of organic matter to the deep open ocean. Nature,
392, 482–485.
Boesch, D. F., 2002. Challenges and opportunities for science in
reducing nutrient over-enrichment of coastal ecosystems. Estuaries, 25, 886–900.
Bruland, K. W., Rue, E. L., Smith, G. J., and Ditullio, G. R., 2005.
Iron, macronutrients and diatom blooms in the Peru upwelling
regime: brown and blue waters of Peru. Marine Chemistry, 93,
81–103.
Chen, C. T. A., Liu, K. K., and Macdonald, R., 2003. Continental
margin exchanges. In Fasham, M. J. R. (ed.), Ocean Biogeochemistry. Berlin: Springer, pp. 53–97.
Dugdale, R. C., and Goering, J. J., 1967. Uptake of new and
regenerated forms of nitrogen in primary productivity. Limnology and Oceanography, 12, 196–206.
Fasham, M. J. R., Balino, B. M., and Bowles, M. C., 2001. A new
vision of ocean biogeochemistry after a decade of the Joint
Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS). AMBIO Special Report,
10, 4–31.
GEOHAB, 2001. Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful
Algal Blooms, Science Plan. Baltimore and Paris: SCOR and
IOC, 87 pp.
GEOTRACES,
2006.
GEOTRACES
Science
Plan.
Baltimore, MD: Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research
(SCOR). 79 pp.
GLOBEC, 1997. Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics Science Plan.
IGBP Report No. 40. Stockholm: IGBP Secretariat, 83 pp.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Mumby, P. J., Hooten, A. J., Steneck, R. S.,
Greenfield, P., Gomez, E., Harvell, C. D., Sale, P. F., Edwards,
A. J., Caldeira, K., Knowlton, N., Eakin, C. M., Iglesias-Prieto,
R., Muthiga, N., Bradbury, R. H., Dubi, A., and Hatziolos,
M. E., 2007. Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean
acidification. Science, 318, 1737–1742.
Hopkinson, C. S., and Vallino, J. J., 2005. Efficient export of carbon
to the deep ocean through dissolved organic matter. Nature, 433,
142–145.
IMBER, 2005. IMBER Science Plan and Implementation Strategy.
IGBP Report No. 52. Stockholm: IGBP Secretariat, 76 pp.
IMBER, 2010. Supplement to the IMBER Science Plan and Implementation Strategy. IGBP report no. 52A. Stockholm: IGBP
Secretariat, 36 pp.
LOICZ, 2005. LOICZ Science Plan and Implementation Strategy.
IGBP report 51/IHDP report no. 18. Stockholm: IGBP Secretariat, 60 pp.
Morel, F. M. M., Milligan, A. J., and Saito, M. A., 2003. Marine
bioinorganic chemistry: the role of trace metals in the oceanic
cycles of major nutrients. In Elderfield, H. (ed.), The Oceans
and Marine Geochemistry, Treatise on Geochemistry. Oxford:
Elsevier, pp. 113–143.
Naqvi, S. W. A., Bange, H. W., Farias, L., Monterio, P. M. S., Scranton, M. I., and Zhang, J., 2010. Marine hypoxia/anoxia as a
source of CH 4 and N 2 O. Biogeosciences, 7, 2159–2190.
Redfield, A. C., Ketchum, B. H., and Richards, F. A., 1963. The
influence of organisms on the composition of sea-water. In Hill,
M. N. (ed.), The Sea. New York: Interscience, pp. 26–77.
Samiento, J. L., and Gruber, N., 2006. Ocean Biogeochemical
Dynamics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Syvitski, J. P. M., Vorosmarty, C., Kettner, A. J., and Green, P.,
2005. Impacts of humans on the flux of terrestrial sediment to
the global coastal ocean. Science, 308, 376–380.
Thomas, H., Bozec, Y., Elkalay, K., and de Baar, H. J. W., 2004.
Enhanced open ocean storage of CO 2 from shelf sea pumping.
Science, 304, 1005–1008.
Zhang, J., Liu, S. M., Ren, J. L., Wu, Y., and Zhang, G. L., 2007.
Nutrient gradients from the eutrophic Changjiang (Yangtze
River) Estuary to the oligotrophic Kuroshio waters and
re-evaluation of budgets for the East China Sea. Progress in
Oceanography, 74, 449–478.
Cross-references
Coasts
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
Export Production
Ocean Acidification
Ocean Margin Systems
Shelf
Upwelling
COASTAL ENGINEERING
Louise Wallendorf
Hydromechanics Laboratory, United States Naval
Academy, Annapolis, MD, USA
Definition
Coastal Engineering is the civil engineering design of
structures to protect or restore a shoreline from the effects
of erosion.
Introduction
Coastal engineering was formally recognized as a specialty of civil engineering with the birth of the International Conference of Coastal Engineering in 1950.
Informally man has been building structures at the border
of the land and sea for centuries; the history and heritage
of coastal engineering through 1990 is documented for
15 countries in the world in the hope that the evolution
of knowledge can be transferred to future generations
(Kraus, 1996). The world population has grown from 2.6
billion in 1950 and to over seven billion in 2014 (United
Nations, 2010; NOAA, 2013). In addition, populations
are concentrated in coastal watersheds; for example, more
than 40 % of cities with populations over 500,000 are
located on the world’s coastlines (NOAA, 2013). The
increased population density and associated shoreline
development are interfering with natural coastal processes
and ecology.
Coastal engineers are now incorporating design elements that both prevent coastal erosion and create a more
natural environment sensitive to the site. Coastal engineers work with biologists, geologists, coastal managers,
lawyers, oceanographers, and the local population to create designs.
COASTAL ENGINEERING
99