6
T. Soomere
Kofoed-Hansen 2001; PIANC 2003; Soomere 2005). Some of these by-products
not only travel much faster than the vessels (e.g., the ship-generated noise) but also
constitute a part of global problems (e.g., exhaust emissions). Many of these risks
are not specific to ship traffic. Different potentially dangerous substances may be
released into the marine environment during various offshore and coastal activities.
This may occur during the construction, operation or dismantling of oil platforms,
breakwaters, quays, pipelines or cables. Even operations at open quays or the treatment or storage of waste in the reach of large waves or high storm surges are not
completely safe in this respect.
1.4 Managing Propagation of Contaminants and Oil Spills
Typically, the potentially dangerous by-products are represented by several nonlocal agents carrying acute danger over substantial distances and persisting for a
long time. A classical example of such a threat to the environment is a large oil
spill. Although it usually propagates much more slowly than the ship, under certain
conditions it may result in extensive remote impact. The accompanying oil pollution
is definitely one of the most serious consequences of coastal and offshore accidents.
To the general public, the sight of an oil spillage in coastal waters, particularly when
effecting wildlife, is the most dramatic example of environmental pollution. Particularly hazardous is the situation if a major fairway is located close to or crosses
vulnerable areas. A hit by an oil spill for certain regions (e.g., wintering areas of
globally endangered species, Elken et al. 2001) is not only economically expensive
but also environmentally unacceptable. Therefore, a key challenge is to arrange ship
traffic (and offshore and nearshore activities) so that the chances for the pollution of
vulnerable areas are minimized if an accident happens somewhere.
Although the relative numbers of dangerous oil spills have been decreasing over
the last decades (Burgherr 2007), the ever increasing capacity to unearth, handle
and transport large quantities of oil extends the radius of the potential impact of
ship traffic. The damaging potential of oil and other adverse impacts, accidentally
or intentionally released to the sea, has today increased to a level that may pose
acute dangers to the ecosystem or society in seemingly remote and perfectly safe
locations. As demonstrated by the Prestige or Deepwater Horizon events, an oil
spill may easily spread over hundreds and even thousands of kilometers from its
source (Fig. 1.1). This impact, carried to vulnerable sites jointly by wind, waves and
currents, may create extremely large risks for some regions (especially nearshore
regions and other vulnerable areas) at quite large distances. The long lifetime of
several adverse impacts in the marine environment substantially increases the level
of risk for remote areas and extends it over a substantial time interval.
The commonly used approach to manage potential pollution at sea is to develop
quick remedial action plans for the event of an accident (e.g., Keramitsoglou et al.
2003; Kostianoy et al. 2008, among others). Another, rapidly developing approach
is the preventive maritime planning strategy; for instance, the optimization of the
T. Soomere
Kofoed-Hansen 2001; PIANC 2003; Soomere 2005). Some of these by-products
not only travel much faster than the vessels (e.g., the ship-generated noise) but also
constitute a part of global problems (e.g., exhaust emissions). Many of these risks
are not specific to ship traffic. Different potentially dangerous substances may be
released into the marine environment during various offshore and coastal activities.
This may occur during the construction, operation or dismantling of oil platforms,
breakwaters, quays, pipelines or cables. Even operations at open quays or the treatment or storage of waste in the reach of large waves or high storm surges are not
completely safe in this respect.
1.4 Managing Propagation of Contaminants and Oil Spills
Typically, the potentially dangerous by-products are represented by several nonlocal agents carrying acute danger over substantial distances and persisting for a
long time. A classical example of such a threat to the environment is a large oil
spill. Although it usually propagates much more slowly than the ship, under certain
conditions it may result in extensive remote impact. The accompanying oil pollution
is definitely one of the most serious consequences of coastal and offshore accidents.
To the general public, the sight of an oil spillage in coastal waters, particularly when
effecting wildlife, is the most dramatic example of environmental pollution. Particularly hazardous is the situation if a major fairway is located close to or crosses
vulnerable areas. A hit by an oil spill for certain regions (e.g., wintering areas of
globally endangered species, Elken et al. 2001) is not only economically expensive
but also environmentally unacceptable. Therefore, a key challenge is to arrange ship
traffic (and offshore and nearshore activities) so that the chances for the pollution of
vulnerable areas are minimized if an accident happens somewhere.
Although the relative numbers of dangerous oil spills have been decreasing over
the last decades (Burgherr 2007), the ever increasing capacity to unearth, handle
and transport large quantities of oil extends the radius of the potential impact of
ship traffic. The damaging potential of oil and other adverse impacts, accidentally
or intentionally released to the sea, has today increased to a level that may pose
acute dangers to the ecosystem or society in seemingly remote and perfectly safe
locations. As demonstrated by the Prestige or Deepwater Horizon events, an oil
spill may easily spread over hundreds and even thousands of kilometers from its
source (Fig. 1.1). This impact, carried to vulnerable sites jointly by wind, waves and
currents, may create extremely large risks for some regions (especially nearshore
regions and other vulnerable areas) at quite large distances. The long lifetime of
several adverse impacts in the marine environment substantially increases the level
of risk for remote areas and extends it over a substantial time interval.
The commonly used approach to manage potential pollution at sea is to develop
quick remedial action plans for the event of an accident (e.g., Keramitsoglou et al.
2003; Kostianoy et al. 2008, among others). Another, rapidly developing approach
is the preventive maritime planning strategy; for instance, the optimization of the