CHAPTER 16 • Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Venezuela: The Maracaibo System
307
By that time, the main environmental worry pointed towards the increased probability of the saline wedge penetrating into the lake, which, in turn, would translate into
more wood-boring species attacks on oil structures (Rodriguez 1984). Concern for other
environmental impacts did not arise at that time. However, two problems were faced:
high costs of maintenance and hydrodynamic modifications that resulted in
crosscurrents and thus in augmented navigation hazards. Two main engineering
projects were considered to subdue this situation: to close the lake with a terminal dike
or to enclose the channel by means of two parallel dikes.
An early concern with this kind of megaproject was the possibility of salinization
of the lake, in one case, or the barring of migratory fluxes of species which use the
Maracaibo system in a compartmentalized fashion. These possibilities have been thoroughly studied (Rodriguez 1973, 1974, 1984), and based on the evidence at hand, it has
been cohcluded that dredging the navigation channel had not altered the biotic composition of the estuary and the lake. It has also been pointed out that the construction
of parallel dikes, a more economical alternative to dredging, is preferable from either
ecological or fisheries perspectives (Rodriguez 1984). Accordingly, in 1972, the construction of terminal dikes was postponed indefinitely, based on the consequences on estuarine ecosystem dynamics and the severe economic repercussion on the low-income
fishfolk community (Rodriguez 1984). As well, a possible increase in pollution, already
severe in this area, was an element considered in the decision-making process
(Rodriguez 1984).
16.10
International Frame
Not all the conflicts that affect the Maracaibo System have a domestic origin. Due to
its proximity to the Venezuela-Colombia border, the well-being of the Maracaibo System also depends on the proper management of the basins in Colombian territory,
beyond the reach of Venezuelan jurisdiction (Fig. 16.1). The predicament is exacerbated
by the fact that Venezuelan watersheds are downstream the Colombian grounds. Currently, the basins with the highest deforestation rates are those in the Serrania de Perija,
where furtive Colombian poppy growers and unscrupulous timber entrepreneurs have
settled, but the most troubling areas are located in the upper reaches of the Catatumbo
river, which account for around 70% of the freshwater that drains into the lake. Additionally, the activities of the Colombian guerrilla in this zone have comprised attacks
against Colombian pipelines that run through shared basins. Since 1986, when its operations started, the Cafio Lim6n-Covefias pipeline, which conducts crude from the
oilfields in the Arauca to the Caribbean Sea through 780 km, has been blasted 474 times.
In 1996, 47 attacks were infringed on this pipeline, which has a transportation capacity of 300 000 bpd. During 1996 a total of 105000 barrels of oil were spilled and the
damages reached US $9.3 million. Over the first three months of 1997, 13 attacks have
been tallied, leading to the spilling oflarge quantities of crude into the Maracaibo basin. A bilateral contingency program between PDVSA and its Colombian equivalent,
Ecopetrol, has been established to try to detect oil spills before they reach Lake
Maracaibo.
To these effects, water diversion should be added, as would occur at La Gabarra where
a Colombian project of power generation is being considered at the moment; such an
307
By that time, the main environmental worry pointed towards the increased probability of the saline wedge penetrating into the lake, which, in turn, would translate into
more wood-boring species attacks on oil structures (Rodriguez 1984). Concern for other
environmental impacts did not arise at that time. However, two problems were faced:
high costs of maintenance and hydrodynamic modifications that resulted in
crosscurrents and thus in augmented navigation hazards. Two main engineering
projects were considered to subdue this situation: to close the lake with a terminal dike
or to enclose the channel by means of two parallel dikes.
An early concern with this kind of megaproject was the possibility of salinization
of the lake, in one case, or the barring of migratory fluxes of species which use the
Maracaibo system in a compartmentalized fashion. These possibilities have been thoroughly studied (Rodriguez 1973, 1974, 1984), and based on the evidence at hand, it has
been cohcluded that dredging the navigation channel had not altered the biotic composition of the estuary and the lake. It has also been pointed out that the construction
of parallel dikes, a more economical alternative to dredging, is preferable from either
ecological or fisheries perspectives (Rodriguez 1984). Accordingly, in 1972, the construction of terminal dikes was postponed indefinitely, based on the consequences on estuarine ecosystem dynamics and the severe economic repercussion on the low-income
fishfolk community (Rodriguez 1984). As well, a possible increase in pollution, already
severe in this area, was an element considered in the decision-making process
(Rodriguez 1984).
16.10
International Frame
Not all the conflicts that affect the Maracaibo System have a domestic origin. Due to
its proximity to the Venezuela-Colombia border, the well-being of the Maracaibo System also depends on the proper management of the basins in Colombian territory,
beyond the reach of Venezuelan jurisdiction (Fig. 16.1). The predicament is exacerbated
by the fact that Venezuelan watersheds are downstream the Colombian grounds. Currently, the basins with the highest deforestation rates are those in the Serrania de Perija,
where furtive Colombian poppy growers and unscrupulous timber entrepreneurs have
settled, but the most troubling areas are located in the upper reaches of the Catatumbo
river, which account for around 70% of the freshwater that drains into the lake. Additionally, the activities of the Colombian guerrilla in this zone have comprised attacks
against Colombian pipelines that run through shared basins. Since 1986, when its operations started, the Cafio Lim6n-Covefias pipeline, which conducts crude from the
oilfields in the Arauca to the Caribbean Sea through 780 km, has been blasted 474 times.
In 1996, 47 attacks were infringed on this pipeline, which has a transportation capacity of 300 000 bpd. During 1996 a total of 105000 barrels of oil were spilled and the
damages reached US $9.3 million. Over the first three months of 1997, 13 attacks have
been tallied, leading to the spilling oflarge quantities of crude into the Maracaibo basin. A bilateral contingency program between PDVSA and its Colombian equivalent,
Ecopetrol, has been established to try to detect oil spills before they reach Lake
Maracaibo.
To these effects, water diversion should be added, as would occur at La Gabarra where
a Colombian project of power generation is being considered at the moment; such an