190
L.D. de Lacerda . B. Kjerfve
decreased freshwater inputs. In French Guyana, more than 20 000 ha of mangroves have
been cut and converted to rice paddies, and large amounts of fungicides, pesticides
and fertilizers are used (K. Wood, pers. comm.), which produces an additional stress.
In the insular Caribbean, tourism development in coastal regions has been the major
destroyer of mangrove areas (Bacon 1993). In Ecuador, mangroves have been reduced
from approximately 204000 ha in 1969 to 160 000 ha in 1991, converted into shrimp
ponds, agriculture fields, and cattle ranges (Bodero 1993).
9.4
Management of Mangrove Areas
A summary of management units for the mangroves of Latin America and the Caribbean is presented in Table 9.4. It is important to note that New World mangroves are
quite diverse in terms of structure and biodiversity, varying from site to site. The site
specific variability should be taken into account when analyzing the data in Table 9.4,
and should always be accounted for whenever management policies are to be applied.
Notwithstanding, a general classification of management categories for New World
mangroves can be attempted. However, this scheme is far from being the ultimate classification scheme. Considering management guidelines, we propose the following four,
general categories: (A) mangrove conservation reserves, (B) mangrove forest reserves,
(C) mangrove fisheries reserves, and (D) damaged mangrove areas (Table 9.4).
Mangrove Conservation Reserves (MCRs) include those forests set aside for conservation, tourism, recreation, and scientific studies. A sub-category of this unit include
fragile areas of significant scientific interest. As an example, the 5 000 ha of mangroves
of the Tumbes river estuary on the north coast of Peru are highly dependent on the El
Nifio phenomena. Inland mangroves of some Caribbean islands also fit in this subcategory. High biodiversity sites comprise another sub-category of MCRs, because of
their inherent biological significance and their potential as a refuge for endangered
species. Type examples of this sub-category include the extensive mangroves along the
Ecuador-Colombia border, various sites along the Pacific coast of Central America, and
the unique Amazon river estuary mangroves. Also as a MCR unit, another sub-category
includes those mangroves of particular importance in providing indirect benefits to
coastal areas, such as maintaining water quality, providing protection against erosion
and storms, and stabilization and building of coastlines and islands. Examples of this
sub-category include the mangroves of some southeastern Brazilian sites, such as
Guanabara Bay, Santos-Bertioga region, and Cartagena Bay in Colombia, where intensive industrialization has lead to a decrease in coastal water quality. Also, the fringe
mangroves of small Caribbean islands, which provide effective shoreline protection,
e.g. Corales del Rosario National Park in the Caribbean Colombia and the Belize barrier reef mangroves, are examples of mangroves of particular importance in providing indirect benefits.
Mangrove Forest Reserves (MFoRs) is a category including those mangroves designated for sustainable production of timber and other forest products. MFoRs include
extensive mangrove stands, which allow economically viable exploitation but still with
conservation of functional aspects of mangrove ecology. Multiple sustainable utilization of mangrove resources should be encouraged in MFoRs. Examples of mangroves
in this category are the extensive forests along the coast of Amapa State in northern
L.D. de Lacerda . B. Kjerfve
decreased freshwater inputs. In French Guyana, more than 20 000 ha of mangroves have
been cut and converted to rice paddies, and large amounts of fungicides, pesticides
and fertilizers are used (K. Wood, pers. comm.), which produces an additional stress.
In the insular Caribbean, tourism development in coastal regions has been the major
destroyer of mangrove areas (Bacon 1993). In Ecuador, mangroves have been reduced
from approximately 204000 ha in 1969 to 160 000 ha in 1991, converted into shrimp
ponds, agriculture fields, and cattle ranges (Bodero 1993).
9.4
Management of Mangrove Areas
A summary of management units for the mangroves of Latin America and the Caribbean is presented in Table 9.4. It is important to note that New World mangroves are
quite diverse in terms of structure and biodiversity, varying from site to site. The site
specific variability should be taken into account when analyzing the data in Table 9.4,
and should always be accounted for whenever management policies are to be applied.
Notwithstanding, a general classification of management categories for New World
mangroves can be attempted. However, this scheme is far from being the ultimate classification scheme. Considering management guidelines, we propose the following four,
general categories: (A) mangrove conservation reserves, (B) mangrove forest reserves,
(C) mangrove fisheries reserves, and (D) damaged mangrove areas (Table 9.4).
Mangrove Conservation Reserves (MCRs) include those forests set aside for conservation, tourism, recreation, and scientific studies. A sub-category of this unit include
fragile areas of significant scientific interest. As an example, the 5 000 ha of mangroves
of the Tumbes river estuary on the north coast of Peru are highly dependent on the El
Nifio phenomena. Inland mangroves of some Caribbean islands also fit in this subcategory. High biodiversity sites comprise another sub-category of MCRs, because of
their inherent biological significance and their potential as a refuge for endangered
species. Type examples of this sub-category include the extensive mangroves along the
Ecuador-Colombia border, various sites along the Pacific coast of Central America, and
the unique Amazon river estuary mangroves. Also as a MCR unit, another sub-category
includes those mangroves of particular importance in providing indirect benefits to
coastal areas, such as maintaining water quality, providing protection against erosion
and storms, and stabilization and building of coastlines and islands. Examples of this
sub-category include the mangroves of some southeastern Brazilian sites, such as
Guanabara Bay, Santos-Bertioga region, and Cartagena Bay in Colombia, where intensive industrialization has lead to a decrease in coastal water quality. Also, the fringe
mangroves of small Caribbean islands, which provide effective shoreline protection,
e.g. Corales del Rosario National Park in the Caribbean Colombia and the Belize barrier reef mangroves, are examples of mangroves of particular importance in providing indirect benefits.
Mangrove Forest Reserves (MFoRs) is a category including those mangroves designated for sustainable production of timber and other forest products. MFoRs include
extensive mangrove stands, which allow economically viable exploitation but still with
conservation of functional aspects of mangrove ecology. Multiple sustainable utilization of mangrove resources should be encouraged in MFoRs. Examples of mangroves
in this category are the extensive forests along the coast of Amapa State in northern