(McKelvey 1999). However, marram became naturalized and subsequently spread
to dune systems of high conservation value. Marram can establish from marinedispersed rhizome and is capable of colonizing remote dune systems tens to
hundreds of kilometers from source (Konlechner and Hilton 2009). Consequently,
most dunes of national conservation value now contain marram grass (Hilton et al.
2000), along with tree lupin (Lupinus arboreus) and a wide range of other weed
species.
Ammophila species, particularly Ammophila arenaria, along with many other
species (e.g., Acacia, Pinus) were introduced into coastal environments in many
countries to stabilize dunes (e.g., New Zealand, USA, Australia, South Africa;
McKelvey 1999; Marchante et al. 2003; Milton 2004). The introduction of marram
grass has led to the development of foredunes and dune types that were previously
either poorly developed or non-existent, changes in the morphology of dunes, the
development of mono-specific stands and exclusion of native plant species, various
ecological effects including the decline of faunal habitats and fauna, and spread to
and invasion of other coastal sites (e.g., Carlton 1989; Aptekar and Rejmánek 2000;
Hertling and Lubke 2000; Vega et al. 2000; Kirkpatrick 2001; Hilton et al. 2006;
Konlechner and Hilton 2009; Pickart 2012). Thus, there is significant interest in
how to remove marram grass, restrict invasions, and restore physical and ecological
functioning to a state similar to that prevailing prior to planting and invasion.
Foredunes, as the foremost dune at the rear of the beach, have always been a
desirable place from which to sit and watch the sea, and from which to conduct
marine activities. From very early on in the history of building towns at the coast,
foredunes were commonly utilized as sites for constructing various kinds of
infrastructure, particularly houses, roads, and industrial structures. When the
Victorians began to popularize visits to the beach in the 1800s, foredunes were
converted to promenades, and altered/modified/destroyed for urban development.
Thus, we now find that foredunes around the world have been altered, modified, or
destroyed for industrial and urban development, parks and easier beach access and
views (e.g., Ferreira and Dias 1992; Veloso-Gomes and Taveira-Pinto 1995; Rakodi and Treloar 1997; Nordstrom and Arens 1998; Batanouny 1999; Nordstrom
2004, 2008; Gomez-Pina et al. 2002; Seeliger 2003; Eppinga et al. 2006; El Banna
and Frihy 2009). Now with the reduction or elimination of building on foredunes
and greater foredune protection in some countries we are faced with the question:
is it possible to restore, rebuild, or create a foredune following various levels of
human-induced change and/or destruction?
In the following, we describe the restoration of two foredunes and a transgressive dunefield in New Zealand (Fig. 5.1), as examples of first, how the morphology and ecology of natural dunes were changed owing to human interventions
(purposely or accidentally); and second, how the morpho-ecological states of the
dunes have been purposely modified or restored to something approaching a
natural state, and the processes and costs associated with that activity.
Restoration here has two dimensions. In the first and second cases examined,
authorities aimed to re-establish the pre-disturbed dune form and indigenous
vegetation cover. This work was undertaken in a metropolitan context. In the third
68
P. A. Hesp and M. J. Hilton
to dune systems of high conservation value. Marram can establish from marinedispersed rhizome and is capable of colonizing remote dune systems tens to
hundreds of kilometers from source (Konlechner and Hilton 2009). Consequently,
most dunes of national conservation value now contain marram grass (Hilton et al.
2000), along with tree lupin (Lupinus arboreus) and a wide range of other weed
species.
Ammophila species, particularly Ammophila arenaria, along with many other
species (e.g., Acacia, Pinus) were introduced into coastal environments in many
countries to stabilize dunes (e.g., New Zealand, USA, Australia, South Africa;
McKelvey 1999; Marchante et al. 2003; Milton 2004). The introduction of marram
grass has led to the development of foredunes and dune types that were previously
either poorly developed or non-existent, changes in the morphology of dunes, the
development of mono-specific stands and exclusion of native plant species, various
ecological effects including the decline of faunal habitats and fauna, and spread to
and invasion of other coastal sites (e.g., Carlton 1989; Aptekar and Rejmánek 2000;
Hertling and Lubke 2000; Vega et al. 2000; Kirkpatrick 2001; Hilton et al. 2006;
Konlechner and Hilton 2009; Pickart 2012). Thus, there is significant interest in
how to remove marram grass, restrict invasions, and restore physical and ecological
functioning to a state similar to that prevailing prior to planting and invasion.
Foredunes, as the foremost dune at the rear of the beach, have always been a
desirable place from which to sit and watch the sea, and from which to conduct
marine activities. From very early on in the history of building towns at the coast,
foredunes were commonly utilized as sites for constructing various kinds of
infrastructure, particularly houses, roads, and industrial structures. When the
Victorians began to popularize visits to the beach in the 1800s, foredunes were
converted to promenades, and altered/modified/destroyed for urban development.
Thus, we now find that foredunes around the world have been altered, modified, or
destroyed for industrial and urban development, parks and easier beach access and
views (e.g., Ferreira and Dias 1992; Veloso-Gomes and Taveira-Pinto 1995; Rakodi and Treloar 1997; Nordstrom and Arens 1998; Batanouny 1999; Nordstrom
2004, 2008; Gomez-Pina et al. 2002; Seeliger 2003; Eppinga et al. 2006; El Banna
and Frihy 2009). Now with the reduction or elimination of building on foredunes
and greater foredune protection in some countries we are faced with the question:
is it possible to restore, rebuild, or create a foredune following various levels of
human-induced change and/or destruction?
In the following, we describe the restoration of two foredunes and a transgressive dunefield in New Zealand (Fig. 5.1), as examples of first, how the morphology and ecology of natural dunes were changed owing to human interventions
(purposely or accidentally); and second, how the morpho-ecological states of the
dunes have been purposely modified or restored to something approaching a
natural state, and the processes and costs associated with that activity.
Restoration here has two dimensions. In the first and second cases examined,
authorities aimed to re-establish the pre-disturbed dune form and indigenous
vegetation cover. This work was undertaken in a metropolitan context. In the third
68
P. A. Hesp and M. J. Hilton