report). The average annual rainfall in the Sperrgebiet (study area) is less than
100 mm (Pallet 1995). Dense coastal fog is an important source of moisture and
fog precipitation often exceeds rainfall (CSIR 2004).
13.1.2 Conservation
Madagascar ranks third in the world in terms of terrestrial endemism per unit area.
Randrianandianina et al. (2003) reported that Madagascar had 46 legally protected
areas at 44 sites, covering a total area of 1,698,639 ha (2.9 % of total area). These
include three reserve types: ‘‘Reserve Naturelle Intrégrale’’, with a ‘‘strict’’ degree
of protection; ‘‘Parc National,’’ for preserving exceptional natural or cultural
areas; and ‘‘Réserve Spéciale’’ for protection of specific ecosystems, sites or
particular species. Environmental impacts in Madagascar are largely anthropogenic, but mining could also have a future impact.
The Sperrgebiet site is situated close to the Namib-Naukluft National Park,
which covers 49,768 km
2 and is mainly characterized by the burnt orange-colored
sand dunes. High isolated ‘‘inselbergs,’’ which, in the Central Namib region are
known to harbor diverse plant communities (Burke 2002), also occur in this region
(van der Merwe 2005). The Spierrgebiet exclusion area is protected from all
activities except mining. Environmental impacts are largely due to mining.
13.2 Rehabilitation Strategies
13.2.1 Toliara Sands Project, West Malagasy, Madagascar
Exxaro Sands (previously known as Kumba Resources) established the Toliara
Sands Project in southwestern Madagascar (Fig. 13.2) for the purposes of the
exploration of heavy mineral deposits at Ranobe, north of the town of Toliara;
Coastal and Environmental Services carried out an Environmental Impact
Assessment of the proposed mining (CES 2006).
The climate is hot and dry and the vegetation predominantly a dense, deciduous
thicket or deciduous forest (Fig. 13.3), generally referred to as ‘‘spiny thicket’’
(CES 2006). The landscape is characterized by a series of ancient sand dunes lying
between the coast and a limestone plateau to the east. The mine deposit lies to the
west of a limestone cliff and extends 1–2 km westward in a narrow north–south
valley across the sandy plain toward the coast. The study area falls within the
driest zone of the sub-arid region, where the annual rainfall averages 350 mm,
increasing gradually toward the north. Most rainfall is experienced from December
to February, although it is erratic from season to season. Other than a few pools
formed around springs, the area is devoid of surface waters.
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R. A. Lubke
100 mm (Pallet 1995). Dense coastal fog is an important source of moisture and
fog precipitation often exceeds rainfall (CSIR 2004).
13.1.2 Conservation
Madagascar ranks third in the world in terms of terrestrial endemism per unit area.
Randrianandianina et al. (2003) reported that Madagascar had 46 legally protected
areas at 44 sites, covering a total area of 1,698,639 ha (2.9 % of total area). These
include three reserve types: ‘‘Reserve Naturelle Intrégrale’’, with a ‘‘strict’’ degree
of protection; ‘‘Parc National,’’ for preserving exceptional natural or cultural
areas; and ‘‘Réserve Spéciale’’ for protection of specific ecosystems, sites or
particular species. Environmental impacts in Madagascar are largely anthropogenic, but mining could also have a future impact.
The Sperrgebiet site is situated close to the Namib-Naukluft National Park,
which covers 49,768 km
2 and is mainly characterized by the burnt orange-colored
sand dunes. High isolated ‘‘inselbergs,’’ which, in the Central Namib region are
known to harbor diverse plant communities (Burke 2002), also occur in this region
(van der Merwe 2005). The Spierrgebiet exclusion area is protected from all
activities except mining. Environmental impacts are largely due to mining.
13.2 Rehabilitation Strategies
13.2.1 Toliara Sands Project, West Malagasy, Madagascar
Exxaro Sands (previously known as Kumba Resources) established the Toliara
Sands Project in southwestern Madagascar (Fig. 13.2) for the purposes of the
exploration of heavy mineral deposits at Ranobe, north of the town of Toliara;
Coastal and Environmental Services carried out an Environmental Impact
Assessment of the proposed mining (CES 2006).
The climate is hot and dry and the vegetation predominantly a dense, deciduous
thicket or deciduous forest (Fig. 13.3), generally referred to as ‘‘spiny thicket’’
(CES 2006). The landscape is characterized by a series of ancient sand dunes lying
between the coast and a limestone plateau to the east. The mine deposit lies to the
west of a limestone cliff and extends 1–2 km westward in a narrow north–south
valley across the sandy plain toward the coast. The study area falls within the
driest zone of the sub-arid region, where the annual rainfall averages 350 mm,
increasing gradually toward the north. Most rainfall is experienced from December
to February, although it is erratic from season to season. Other than a few pools
formed around springs, the area is devoid of surface waters.
202
R. A. Lubke