the US National Council of Marine Resources and Engineering, chaired by the US
Vice President, in 1966. The Council argued the case for such a collaborative global
effort on the basis of “food for the world population, maritime threats to world
order, waterfront deterioration in coastal cities, increased pollution of the shoreline, expanding requirements for sea-bed oil, gas and minerals, and expanding
ocean shipping.” The idea of an ocean decade was announced in March 1968 by the
President of the United States as “an historic and unprecedented adventure”,
(National Academy of Sciences 1969) with the underlying position stated by the
same President in 1966 that “Under no circumstances must we ever allow the
prospects of rich harvest and mineral wealth to create a new form of colonial
competition among the maritime nations. We must be careful to avoid a race to grab
and hold the lands under the high seas. We must ensure that the deep seas and the
ocean bottom are, and remains the legacy of all human beings”. This constituted a
foundation and position for the Law of the Sea, as well as for sustainable development: all elements of sustainable development are included in the Law of the Sea,
which also includes the idea of peace and security. The concept of the Common
Heritage of Mankind was first discussed by the General Assembly in 1967 following an introduction on ocean development by the Ambassador of Malta, Arvid
Pardo, in context of the opportunity of preservation of the sea-bed and ocean floor
exclusively for peaceful purposes. In 1970, the General Assembly adopted a
Declaration of Principles, on basis of negotiations in the Committee on the Peaceful
Uses of the Sea-bed and ocean Floor beyond the limits of National Jurisdiction. The
Declaration stated that “The Sea-bed and ocean floor, and the subsoil thereof,
beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. . ...as well as the resources of the area,
are the Common Heritage of Mankind”, and shall not be subject to appropriation by
any means by States or persons, and “the area shall be open to use exclusively for
peaceful purposes by all States. . ., without discrimination.” These clauses reflect
the declaration of the President of the United States leading to the International
Decade of Ocean Exploration. The Marine Council sought international support for
the Decade. Following consultations, the IOC in June 1968 recommended support
for the IDOE. In December the same year the UN General Assembly endorsed “the
concept of an IDOE to be undertaken within the framework of a long-term
programme of research and exploration designed to assist in a better understanding of the marine environment through science.” The Decade, initiated a century
after the Challenger expedition, marked a major turning point in ocean exploration
and changed the science of oceanography (Report by NSF on IDOE, in “The
discovery of Hydrothermal Vents”, 25 Anniversary, WHOI 2002).
The efforts, spirit and opportunities of the International Decade raised considerable support from governments for ocean research and observations, stimulated
much interest in the ocean and the marine environment, the marine resources and
their use and management. One of the major discoveries was that of the deep sea
hydrothermal vents with their exceptional ecosystems. The example demonstrated
the limits of our mapping and knowledge about the ocean floor. Although somewhat
improved and extended our quantification of processes at the water-sediment
interface and the mapping of the ocean floor are not satisfactory and far from
32 Development of International Cooperation in Oceanography: Incentives from. . .
539
Vice President, in 1966. The Council argued the case for such a collaborative global
effort on the basis of “food for the world population, maritime threats to world
order, waterfront deterioration in coastal cities, increased pollution of the shoreline, expanding requirements for sea-bed oil, gas and minerals, and expanding
ocean shipping.” The idea of an ocean decade was announced in March 1968 by the
President of the United States as “an historic and unprecedented adventure”,
(National Academy of Sciences 1969) with the underlying position stated by the
same President in 1966 that “Under no circumstances must we ever allow the
prospects of rich harvest and mineral wealth to create a new form of colonial
competition among the maritime nations. We must be careful to avoid a race to grab
and hold the lands under the high seas. We must ensure that the deep seas and the
ocean bottom are, and remains the legacy of all human beings”. This constituted a
foundation and position for the Law of the Sea, as well as for sustainable development: all elements of sustainable development are included in the Law of the Sea,
which also includes the idea of peace and security. The concept of the Common
Heritage of Mankind was first discussed by the General Assembly in 1967 following an introduction on ocean development by the Ambassador of Malta, Arvid
Pardo, in context of the opportunity of preservation of the sea-bed and ocean floor
exclusively for peaceful purposes. In 1970, the General Assembly adopted a
Declaration of Principles, on basis of negotiations in the Committee on the Peaceful
Uses of the Sea-bed and ocean Floor beyond the limits of National Jurisdiction. The
Declaration stated that “The Sea-bed and ocean floor, and the subsoil thereof,
beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. . ...as well as the resources of the area,
are the Common Heritage of Mankind”, and shall not be subject to appropriation by
any means by States or persons, and “the area shall be open to use exclusively for
peaceful purposes by all States. . ., without discrimination.” These clauses reflect
the declaration of the President of the United States leading to the International
Decade of Ocean Exploration. The Marine Council sought international support for
the Decade. Following consultations, the IOC in June 1968 recommended support
for the IDOE. In December the same year the UN General Assembly endorsed “the
concept of an IDOE to be undertaken within the framework of a long-term
programme of research and exploration designed to assist in a better understanding of the marine environment through science.” The Decade, initiated a century
after the Challenger expedition, marked a major turning point in ocean exploration
and changed the science of oceanography (Report by NSF on IDOE, in “The
discovery of Hydrothermal Vents”, 25 Anniversary, WHOI 2002).
The efforts, spirit and opportunities of the International Decade raised considerable support from governments for ocean research and observations, stimulated
much interest in the ocean and the marine environment, the marine resources and
their use and management. One of the major discoveries was that of the deep sea
hydrothermal vents with their exceptional ecosystems. The example demonstrated
the limits of our mapping and knowledge about the ocean floor. Although somewhat
improved and extended our quantification of processes at the water-sediment
interface and the mapping of the ocean floor are not satisfactory and far from
32 Development of International Cooperation in Oceanography: Incentives from. . .
539