Marine Outfalls References 739
Part C | 32
tailed monitoring program over a long period of time,
environmental changes will be masked by the small
time steps between consecutive sets of readings. It may
be more effective to implement a low level, long-term
monitoring program and revisit the detailed monitoring
program, for example, over two consecutive years every 10 yr. If the long-term program indicates a potential
problem, it provides the motivation for a more detailed
investigation.
Where such an approach is adopted, source characterization combined with numerical modeling are used
to estimate environmental impact. If the results indicate
a possible impact, confirmation studies can be implemented.
32.6.4 Summary
This chapter provides a synopsis of the discharge of
wastewater to the marine environment. Flows of effluent from municipal sewage treatment plants and
brine from desalination plants are primarily considered
within the context of near-field modeling and outfall hydraulics. The designers of outfalls are under increasing
pressure from social, public health and environmental
constraints, within a regulatory and economic framework, all of which need to be considered. This compact
overview exposes the reader to fundamentals of outfall
design and identifies some of the traps and problems
that may arise.
References
32.1
P.M. Tate, J.H. Middleton: Buoyant jets of elliptic
shape: Approximation for duckbill valves, J. Hydraul. Eng. 130(5), 432–440 (2004)
32.2
Metcalf & Eddy Inc., G. Tchobanoglous, F.L. Burton,
H.D. Stensel: Wastewater Engineering: Treatment
and Reuse, 4th edn. (McGraw-Hill, New York 2003)
32.3
P. Palomar, I.J. Losada: Impacts of brine discharge
on the marine environment. Modelling as a predictive tool. In: Desalination, Trends and Technologies, ed. by M. Schorr (InTech, Rijeka 2010)
pp. 279–310
32.4
I.R. Wood, R.G. Bell, D.L. Wilkinson: Ocean Disposal
of Waste (World Scientific, Singapore 1993)
32.5
J.H. Lee, V. Cheung: Generalized Lagrangian model
for buoyant jets in current, J. Environ. Eng. 116(6),
1085–1106 (1990)
32.6
P.M. Tate, J.H. Middleton: Unification of non-dimensional solutions to asymptotic equations for
plumes of different shape, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 94(2), 225–251 (2000)
32.7
G.H. Jirka, P.J. Akar: Hydrodynamic classification
of submerged multiport-diffuser discharges, J. Hydraul. Eng. 117(9), 1113–1128 (1991)
32.8
G.H. Jirka, R.L. Doneker: Hydrodynamic classification of submerged single-port discharges, J. Hydraul. Eng. 117(9), 1095–1112 (1991)
32.9
B. Morton, G. Taylor, J. Turner: Turbulent gravitational convection from maintained and instantaneous sources, Proc. R. Soc. A 234(1196), 1–23 (1956)
32.10 C.C. Lai, J.H. Lee: Mixing of inclined dense jets in
stationary ambient, J. Hydroenviron. Res. 6(1), 9–
28 (2012)
32.11 P.J. Roberts, A. Ferrier, G. Daviero: Mixing in inclined dense jets, J. Hydraul. Eng. 123(7), 693–699
(1997)
32.12 A. Cipollina, A. Brucato, F. Grisafi, S. Nicosia:
Bench-scale investigation of inclined dense jets,
J. Hydraul. Eng. 131(11), 1017–1022 (2005)
32.13 S. Nemlioglu, P. Roberts: Experiments on dense
jets using three-dimensional laser-induced fluorescence (3DLIF), Proc. 4th Int. Conf. MWWD, Antalya
(2006)
32.14 G. Kikkert, M. Davidson, R. Nokes: Inclined negatively buoyant discharges, J. Hydraul. Eng. 133(4),
545–554 (2007)
32.15 D. Shao, A.W.-K. Law: Mixing and boundary interactions of 30 and 45 inclined dense jets, Environ.
Fluid Mech. 10(5), 521–553 (2010)
32.16 I.G. Papakonstantis, G.C. Christodoulou, P.N. Papanicolaou: Inclined negatively buoyant jets 1: Geometrical characteristics, J. Hydraul. Res. 49(1), 3–12
(2011)
32.17 I.G. Papakonstantis, G.C. Christodoulou, P.N. Papanicolaou: Inclined negatively buoyant jets 2:
Concentration measurements, J. Hydraul. Res.
49(1), 13–22 (2011)
32.18 L.-N. Fan: Turbulent Buoyant Jets into Stratified or
Flowing Ambient Fluids, Technical Report (CALTECH,
Pasadena 1967)
32.19 V.H. Chu: L.N. Fan’s data on buoyant jets in crossflow, J. Hydraul. Div. 105(4), 612–617 (1979)
32.20 P.J. Roberts, H.J. Salas, F.M. Reiff, M. Libhaber: Marine Wastewater Outfalls and Treatment Systems
(IWA Publishing, London 2010)
32.21 B. Henderson-Sellers: Modeling of Plume Rise and
Dispersion-The University of Salford Model: USPR,
Lecture Notes in Engineering, Vol. 25 (Springer,
Berlin Heidelberg 1987)
32.22 H.B. Fischer, E.J. List, R.C.Y. Koh, J. Imberger,
N.H. Brooks: Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters
(Academic, New York 1979)
32.23 D.L. Wilkinson: Optimal design of ocean outfalls. In:
Environmental Hydraulics, ed. by C.C. Lai, J.H. Lee
(Balkema, Rotterdam 1991) pp. 275–279
32.24 S.I. Seneviratne, N. Nicholls, D. Easterling,
C.M. Goodess, S. Kanae, J. Kossin, Y. Luo, J. Marengo, K. McInnes, M. Rahimi, M. Reichstein,
A. Sorteberg, C. Vera, X. Zhang: Changes in climate
extremes and their impacts on the natural physical
environment. In: Managing the Risks of Extreme
Part C | 32
tailed monitoring program over a long period of time,
environmental changes will be masked by the small
time steps between consecutive sets of readings. It may
be more effective to implement a low level, long-term
monitoring program and revisit the detailed monitoring
program, for example, over two consecutive years every 10 yr. If the long-term program indicates a potential
problem, it provides the motivation for a more detailed
investigation.
Where such an approach is adopted, source characterization combined with numerical modeling are used
to estimate environmental impact. If the results indicate
a possible impact, confirmation studies can be implemented.
32.6.4 Summary
This chapter provides a synopsis of the discharge of
wastewater to the marine environment. Flows of effluent from municipal sewage treatment plants and
brine from desalination plants are primarily considered
within the context of near-field modeling and outfall hydraulics. The designers of outfalls are under increasing
pressure from social, public health and environmental
constraints, within a regulatory and economic framework, all of which need to be considered. This compact
overview exposes the reader to fundamentals of outfall
design and identifies some of the traps and problems
that may arise.
References
32.1
P.M. Tate, J.H. Middleton: Buoyant jets of elliptic
shape: Approximation for duckbill valves, J. Hydraul. Eng. 130(5), 432–440 (2004)
32.2
Metcalf & Eddy Inc., G. Tchobanoglous, F.L. Burton,
H.D. Stensel: Wastewater Engineering: Treatment
and Reuse, 4th edn. (McGraw-Hill, New York 2003)
32.3
P. Palomar, I.J. Losada: Impacts of brine discharge
on the marine environment. Modelling as a predictive tool. In: Desalination, Trends and Technologies, ed. by M. Schorr (InTech, Rijeka 2010)
pp. 279–310
32.4
I.R. Wood, R.G. Bell, D.L. Wilkinson: Ocean Disposal
of Waste (World Scientific, Singapore 1993)
32.5
J.H. Lee, V. Cheung: Generalized Lagrangian model
for buoyant jets in current, J. Environ. Eng. 116(6),
1085–1106 (1990)
32.6
P.M. Tate, J.H. Middleton: Unification of non-dimensional solutions to asymptotic equations for
plumes of different shape, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 94(2), 225–251 (2000)
32.7
G.H. Jirka, P.J. Akar: Hydrodynamic classification
of submerged multiport-diffuser discharges, J. Hydraul. Eng. 117(9), 1113–1128 (1991)
32.8
G.H. Jirka, R.L. Doneker: Hydrodynamic classification of submerged single-port discharges, J. Hydraul. Eng. 117(9), 1095–1112 (1991)
32.9
B. Morton, G. Taylor, J. Turner: Turbulent gravitational convection from maintained and instantaneous sources, Proc. R. Soc. A 234(1196), 1–23 (1956)
32.10 C.C. Lai, J.H. Lee: Mixing of inclined dense jets in
stationary ambient, J. Hydroenviron. Res. 6(1), 9–
28 (2012)
32.11 P.J. Roberts, A. Ferrier, G. Daviero: Mixing in inclined dense jets, J. Hydraul. Eng. 123(7), 693–699
(1997)
32.12 A. Cipollina, A. Brucato, F. Grisafi, S. Nicosia:
Bench-scale investigation of inclined dense jets,
J. Hydraul. Eng. 131(11), 1017–1022 (2005)
32.13 S. Nemlioglu, P. Roberts: Experiments on dense
jets using three-dimensional laser-induced fluorescence (3DLIF), Proc. 4th Int. Conf. MWWD, Antalya
(2006)
32.14 G. Kikkert, M. Davidson, R. Nokes: Inclined negatively buoyant discharges, J. Hydraul. Eng. 133(4),
545–554 (2007)
32.15 D. Shao, A.W.-K. Law: Mixing and boundary interactions of 30 and 45 inclined dense jets, Environ.
Fluid Mech. 10(5), 521–553 (2010)
32.16 I.G. Papakonstantis, G.C. Christodoulou, P.N. Papanicolaou: Inclined negatively buoyant jets 1: Geometrical characteristics, J. Hydraul. Res. 49(1), 3–12
(2011)
32.17 I.G. Papakonstantis, G.C. Christodoulou, P.N. Papanicolaou: Inclined negatively buoyant jets 2:
Concentration measurements, J. Hydraul. Res.
49(1), 13–22 (2011)
32.18 L.-N. Fan: Turbulent Buoyant Jets into Stratified or
Flowing Ambient Fluids, Technical Report (CALTECH,
Pasadena 1967)
32.19 V.H. Chu: L.N. Fan’s data on buoyant jets in crossflow, J. Hydraul. Div. 105(4), 612–617 (1979)
32.20 P.J. Roberts, H.J. Salas, F.M. Reiff, M. Libhaber: Marine Wastewater Outfalls and Treatment Systems
(IWA Publishing, London 2010)
32.21 B. Henderson-Sellers: Modeling of Plume Rise and
Dispersion-The University of Salford Model: USPR,
Lecture Notes in Engineering, Vol. 25 (Springer,
Berlin Heidelberg 1987)
32.22 H.B. Fischer, E.J. List, R.C.Y. Koh, J. Imberger,
N.H. Brooks: Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters
(Academic, New York 1979)
32.23 D.L. Wilkinson: Optimal design of ocean outfalls. In:
Environmental Hydraulics, ed. by C.C. Lai, J.H. Lee
(Balkema, Rotterdam 1991) pp. 275–279
32.24 S.I. Seneviratne, N. Nicholls, D. Easterling,
C.M. Goodess, S. Kanae, J. Kossin, Y. Luo, J. Marengo, K. McInnes, M. Rahimi, M. Reichstein,
A. Sorteberg, C. Vera, X. Zhang: Changes in climate
extremes and their impacts on the natural physical
environment. In: Managing the Risks of Extreme