Part B | 23
526 Part B Autonomous Ocean Vehicles, Subsystems and Control
one manned vessel, operating under partial autonomy
(autopilot) will encounter an unmanned vessel, both
similarly programmed to avoid collision. One can imagine several outcomes to this encounter, including those
involving a collision and eventual legal engagement. As
with most technological evolutions, the rapidly changing technical and legal landscape will dictate the final
regulatory environment that all vessels will operate
within. In this world of convergence between manned
and unmanned platforms, it is entirely possible that future vessel operators will become passive observers as
robotic helms carefully maneuver all manner of water
craft in safe and predictable fashion while obeying all
of the established and accepted rules of the road.
References
23.1
International Maritime Organization: Convention
on the International Regulations for Preventing
Collisions at Sea (COLREGS) (IMO, London 1972)
23.2
T. Huntsberger, H. Aghazarian, A. Howard, D. Trotz:
Stereo vision based navigation for autonomous
surface vessels, J. Field Robotics 28(1), 3–18
(2011)
23.3
T. Huntsberger, G. Woodward: Intelligent autonomy
for unmanned surface and underwater vehicles,
Proc. OCEANS (2011) pp. 1–10
23.4
M.T. Wolf, C. Assad, Y. Kuwata, A. Howard, H. Aghazarian, D. Zhu, T. Lu, A. Trebi-Ollennu, T. Huntsberger: 360-degree visual detection and target
tracking on an autonomous maritime patrol vessel, J. Field Robotics 27(6), 818–838 (2010)
23.5
Y. Kuwata, M. Wolf, D. Zarzhitsky, T. Huntsberger:
Safe maritime navigation with COLREGS, using velocity obstacles, IEEE J. Ocean Eng. 39(1), 110–119
(2014)
23.6
Y. Kuwata, M. Wolf, D. Zarzhitsky, T. Huntsberger:
Safe maritime navigation with COLREGS using velocity obstacles, Proc. IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. Intell.
Robots Syst. (IROS) (2011) pp. 3728–4734
23.7
M. Benjamin, J. Curcio, J. Leonard, P. Newman:
A method for protocol-based COLREGS collision
avoidance navigation between unmanned marine surface craft, J. Field Robotics 23(5), 333–346
(2006)
23.8
P.M. Newman: MOOS – A Mission Oriented Operating Suite, Tech. Rep. OE2003-07 (MIT Department of
Ocean Engineering, Cambridge 2003)
23.9
M. Benjamin, H. Schmidt, P. Newman, J. Leonard:
Nested autonomy for unmanned marine vehicles
with MOOS-IvP, J. Field Robotics 27(6), 834–875
(2010)
23.10 M. Benjamin: Multi-objective helming with interval programming on autonomous marine vehicles,
Proc. IEEE/RJS IROS 2006 Workshop Multi-Objective
Robotics (IROS-MOR 2006) (2006)
23.11 L. Elkins, D. Sellers, W.R. Monach: The autonomous
maritime navigation (AMN) project: Field tests, autonomous and cooperative behaviors, data fusion,
sensors, and vehicles, J. Field Robotics 27(6), 790–
818 (2010)
23.12 M. Benjamin, J. Curcio, J. Leonard, P. Newman:
Protocol-based COLREGS collision avoidance navigation between unmanned marine surface craft,
J. Field Robotics 23(5), 333–346 (2006)
23.13 J. Curcio, J. Leonard, A. Patrikalakis: SCOUT – a
low cost autonomous surface platform for research
in cooperative autonomy, MTS/IEEE Proc. OCEANS
(2005) pp. 725–729
23.14 M. Benjamin, H. Schmidt: Massachusetts Institute
of Technology Graduate Level Course 2.S998, Marine
Autonomy, Sensing and Communications, 2012.
23.15 PUBLIC LAW 112–95–FEB. 14, 2012, 112th Congress, 126
Stat 72, Title III, Unmanned Aircraft Systems, Section
332, Integration of civil unmanned aircraft systems
into national airspace system.
23.16 Next Generation Air Transportation System, Joint
Planning and Development Office: NextGen UAS Research Development and Demonstration Roadmap,
Version 1.0 (JPDO, Washington 2012)
23.17 Department of Defense: Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap FY2011-2036 (2011)
23.18 D.J. Bederman: The future of maritime law in the
federal courts: A faculty colloquium, J. Mar. L. Commer. 31, 189 (2000)
23.19 1 U.S.C.S. §3 (2006) (definition of “vessel”)
23.20 28 U.S.T. 3459 (Oct. 20, 1972)
23.21 2 American Jurisprudence 2d §4, Admiralty p. 722
23.22 2 American Jurisprudence2d §33, Admiralty p. 740
23.23 70 American Jurisprudence 2d edition, shipping, p.
456
23.24 American Jurisprudence2d §33 p. 740
23.25 M. Benjamin, J. Curcio: COLREGS-Based Navigation of Autonomous Underwater Marine Vehicles,
Proc. Inst. Electrical Electronics Eng. (IEEE) Conf. Autonomous Unmanned Vehicles (1994) pp. 32–39
23.26 C.H. Allen: The seabots are coming here: Should
they be treated as vessels?, J. Navig. 65, 749–752
(2012)
23.27 A.H. Henderson: Murky waters: The legal status of
unmanned undersea vehicles, Naval Law Review
53, 55–72 (2006)
23.28 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 33, Chapter 1,
Sub-chapter E, Part 83, Subpart A, Section 83.03,
General Definitions (Rule 3g).
526 Part B Autonomous Ocean Vehicles, Subsystems and Control
one manned vessel, operating under partial autonomy
(autopilot) will encounter an unmanned vessel, both
similarly programmed to avoid collision. One can imagine several outcomes to this encounter, including those
involving a collision and eventual legal engagement. As
with most technological evolutions, the rapidly changing technical and legal landscape will dictate the final
regulatory environment that all vessels will operate
within. In this world of convergence between manned
and unmanned platforms, it is entirely possible that future vessel operators will become passive observers as
robotic helms carefully maneuver all manner of water
craft in safe and predictable fashion while obeying all
of the established and accepted rules of the road.
References
23.1
International Maritime Organization: Convention
on the International Regulations for Preventing
Collisions at Sea (COLREGS) (IMO, London 1972)
23.2
T. Huntsberger, H. Aghazarian, A. Howard, D. Trotz:
Stereo vision based navigation for autonomous
surface vessels, J. Field Robotics 28(1), 3–18
(2011)
23.3
T. Huntsberger, G. Woodward: Intelligent autonomy
for unmanned surface and underwater vehicles,
Proc. OCEANS (2011) pp. 1–10
23.4
M.T. Wolf, C. Assad, Y. Kuwata, A. Howard, H. Aghazarian, D. Zhu, T. Lu, A. Trebi-Ollennu, T. Huntsberger: 360-degree visual detection and target
tracking on an autonomous maritime patrol vessel, J. Field Robotics 27(6), 818–838 (2010)
23.5
Y. Kuwata, M. Wolf, D. Zarzhitsky, T. Huntsberger:
Safe maritime navigation with COLREGS, using velocity obstacles, IEEE J. Ocean Eng. 39(1), 110–119
(2014)
23.6
Y. Kuwata, M. Wolf, D. Zarzhitsky, T. Huntsberger:
Safe maritime navigation with COLREGS using velocity obstacles, Proc. IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. Intell.
Robots Syst. (IROS) (2011) pp. 3728–4734
23.7
M. Benjamin, J. Curcio, J. Leonard, P. Newman:
A method for protocol-based COLREGS collision
avoidance navigation between unmanned marine surface craft, J. Field Robotics 23(5), 333–346
(2006)
23.8
P.M. Newman: MOOS – A Mission Oriented Operating Suite, Tech. Rep. OE2003-07 (MIT Department of
Ocean Engineering, Cambridge 2003)
23.9
M. Benjamin, H. Schmidt, P. Newman, J. Leonard:
Nested autonomy for unmanned marine vehicles
with MOOS-IvP, J. Field Robotics 27(6), 834–875
(2010)
23.10 M. Benjamin: Multi-objective helming with interval programming on autonomous marine vehicles,
Proc. IEEE/RJS IROS 2006 Workshop Multi-Objective
Robotics (IROS-MOR 2006) (2006)
23.11 L. Elkins, D. Sellers, W.R. Monach: The autonomous
maritime navigation (AMN) project: Field tests, autonomous and cooperative behaviors, data fusion,
sensors, and vehicles, J. Field Robotics 27(6), 790–
818 (2010)
23.12 M. Benjamin, J. Curcio, J. Leonard, P. Newman:
Protocol-based COLREGS collision avoidance navigation between unmanned marine surface craft,
J. Field Robotics 23(5), 333–346 (2006)
23.13 J. Curcio, J. Leonard, A. Patrikalakis: SCOUT – a
low cost autonomous surface platform for research
in cooperative autonomy, MTS/IEEE Proc. OCEANS
(2005) pp. 725–729
23.14 M. Benjamin, H. Schmidt: Massachusetts Institute
of Technology Graduate Level Course 2.S998, Marine
Autonomy, Sensing and Communications, 2012.
23.15 PUBLIC LAW 112–95–FEB. 14, 2012, 112th Congress, 126
Stat 72, Title III, Unmanned Aircraft Systems, Section
332, Integration of civil unmanned aircraft systems
into national airspace system.
23.16 Next Generation Air Transportation System, Joint
Planning and Development Office: NextGen UAS Research Development and Demonstration Roadmap,
Version 1.0 (JPDO, Washington 2012)
23.17 Department of Defense: Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap FY2011-2036 (2011)
23.18 D.J. Bederman: The future of maritime law in the
federal courts: A faculty colloquium, J. Mar. L. Commer. 31, 189 (2000)
23.19 1 U.S.C.S. §3 (2006) (definition of “vessel”)
23.20 28 U.S.T. 3459 (Oct. 20, 1972)
23.21 2 American Jurisprudence 2d §4, Admiralty p. 722
23.22 2 American Jurisprudence2d §33, Admiralty p. 740
23.23 70 American Jurisprudence 2d edition, shipping, p.
456
23.24 American Jurisprudence2d §33 p. 740
23.25 M. Benjamin, J. Curcio: COLREGS-Based Navigation of Autonomous Underwater Marine Vehicles,
Proc. Inst. Electrical Electronics Eng. (IEEE) Conf. Autonomous Unmanned Vehicles (1994) pp. 32–39
23.26 C.H. Allen: The seabots are coming here: Should
they be treated as vessels?, J. Navig. 65, 749–752
(2012)
23.27 A.H. Henderson: Murky waters: The legal status of
unmanned undersea vehicles, Naval Law Review
53, 55–72 (2006)
23.28 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 33, Chapter 1,
Sub-chapter E, Part 83, Subpart A, Section 83.03,
General Definitions (Rule 3g).