Second, the introduction of nonnative species
(e.g., cheatgrass) has made permanent changes
in fire frequencies. Third, fire size and intensity
of the past are clearly not acceptable in developed areas. And, fourth, system boundaries and
fire regimes will change as the climate changes
(cf., McKenzie et al. 1996; Rogers et al. 2011).
Therefore, only where possible, we need to
restore the natural range of variation. We must
also determine our feasible alternatives for the
“Future Range of Variation.”
References
Allen CD, Savage M, Falk DA, Suckling KF, Swetnam
TW, Schulke T, Stacey PB, Morgan P, Hoffman M,
Klingel JT (2002) Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystems: a broad perspective.
Ecol Appl 12(5):1418–1433
Bailey RG (2002) Ecoregion-based design for
sustainability. Springer, New York, 222 pp
Bailey RG (2010) Fire regimes and ecoregions (Chap 2).
In: Elliot WJ, Miller IS, Audin L (eds) Cumulative
watershed effects of fuel management in the western
United States. General technical report RMRS-GTR231. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research
Station, Fort Collins, CO, pp 7–18
Bailey RG, Avers PE, King T, McNab WH (eds) (1994)
Map. Ecoregions and subregions of the United States.
U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, DC. Scale
1:7.500.000. Accompanied by supplementary table
of map unit descriptions compiled and edited by W.
H. McNab and R.G. Bailey
Cleland DT, Crow TR, Saunders SC, Dickmann DI,
Maclean AL, Jordan JK, Watson RL, Sloan AM,
Brosofske KD (2004) Characterizing historical and
modern fire regimes in Michigan (USA): a landscape
ecosystem approach. Landsc Ecol 19:313–325
Fule PZ, Crouse JE, Roccaforte JP, Kalies EL (2012) Do
thinning and/or burning treatments in western USA
ponderosa or Jeffery pine-dominated forest help
restore natural fire behavior? For Ecol Manage
269:68–81
Landres PB, Morgan P, Swanson FJ (1999) Overview of
the use of natural variability concepts in managing
ecological systems. Ecol Appl 9(4):1379–1388
Littell JS, McKenzie D, Peterson DL, Westerling AL
(2009) Climate and wildfire area burned in western
U.S. ecoprovinces. 1916–2003. Ecol Appl 19
(4):1003–1021
Malamud BD, Millington JDA, Perry FW (2005)
Characterizing wildfire regimes in the United States.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:4694–4699
McKenzie D, Peterson DL, Alvarado E (1996) Predicting
the effect of fire on large-scale vegetation patterns in
North America. Research Paper PNW-RP-489. USDA
Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station,
Portland, OR, 38 pp
Miller JD, Collins BM, Lutz JA et al (2012) Differences
in wildfire among ecoregions and land management
agencies in the Sierra Nevada region, California,
USA. Ecosphere 3(9):80, http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/
ES12-00158.1
Peterson DL, Littell JS (2012) Risk assessment for wildfire in the Western United States. In: Vose JM,
Peterson DL, Patel-Weynand T (eds) Effects of climatic variability and change on forest ecosystems: a
comprehensive science synthesis for the U.S. Forest
sector. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-870.
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research
Station, Portland, OR, pp 227–252
Rogers BM, Neilson RP, Drapek R, Lenihan JM, Wells
JR, Bachelet D, Law BE (2011) Impacts of climate
change on fire regimes and carbon stocks of the U.S.
Pacific Northwest. J Geophys Res 116:G03037.
doi:10.1029/2011JG001695
Savage M (2003) Restoring natural systems through natural processes. Quivera Coalit Newsl 6(2):1, 20–27
Schmidt KM, Menakis JP, Hardy CC, Hann WJ, Bunnell
DL (2002) Development of coarse-scale spatial data
for wildland fire and fuel management. General Technical Report RMRS GTR-87. USDA Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO,
41 pp
Sommers WT, Coloff SG, Conard SG (2011) Synthesis of
knowledge: fire history and climate change. Report
submitted to the Joint Fire Science Program for Project
09-2-01-09, 190 pp with 6 Appendices. http://www.
firescience.gov/projects/09-2-01-9/project/09-2-01-9_
09_2_01_9_Deliverable_01.pdf
Spracklen DV, Mickley LJ, Logan JA, Hudman RC,
Yevich R, Flannigan MD, Westerling AL (2009)
Impacts of climate change from 2000 to 2050 on
wildfire activity and carbonaceous aerosol
concentrations in the western United States. J
Geophys
Res
114:D20301.
doi:10.1029/
2008JD010966
Swanson FJ, Franklin JF, Sedell JR (1990) Landscape
patterns, disturbance, and management in the Pacific
Northwest, USA. In: Zonneveld IS, Forman RTT (eds)
Changing landscapes: an ecological perspective.
Springer, New York, pp 191–213
The Nature Conservancy (2004) Fire, ecosystems and
people. Global Fire Initiative, Tallahassee, FL, p 9
Turner MF, Romme WH (1994) Landscape dynamics in
crown fire ecosystems. Landsc Ecol 9(1):59–77
Vale TR (1982) Plants and people. Association of American Geographers Press, Washington, DC, 88 pp
Westerling AL, Fershunov A, Cayon DR, Barnett TP
(2002) Long-lead statistical forecasts of area burned
in western U.S. wildfires by ecosystem province. Int J
Wildland Fire 13:257–266
Yue X, Mickley LJ, Logan JA, Kaplan JO (2013) Ensemble projections of wildfire activity and carbonaceous
aerosol concentrations over the western United States
in the mid-21st century. Atmos Environ 77:767–780
References
135
(e.g., cheatgrass) has made permanent changes
in fire frequencies. Third, fire size and intensity
of the past are clearly not acceptable in developed areas. And, fourth, system boundaries and
fire regimes will change as the climate changes
(cf., McKenzie et al. 1996; Rogers et al. 2011).
Therefore, only where possible, we need to
restore the natural range of variation. We must
also determine our feasible alternatives for the
“Future Range of Variation.”
References
Allen CD, Savage M, Falk DA, Suckling KF, Swetnam
TW, Schulke T, Stacey PB, Morgan P, Hoffman M,
Klingel JT (2002) Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystems: a broad perspective.
Ecol Appl 12(5):1418–1433
Bailey RG (2002) Ecoregion-based design for
sustainability. Springer, New York, 222 pp
Bailey RG (2010) Fire regimes and ecoregions (Chap 2).
In: Elliot WJ, Miller IS, Audin L (eds) Cumulative
watershed effects of fuel management in the western
United States. General technical report RMRS-GTR231. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research
Station, Fort Collins, CO, pp 7–18
Bailey RG, Avers PE, King T, McNab WH (eds) (1994)
Map. Ecoregions and subregions of the United States.
U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, DC. Scale
1:7.500.000. Accompanied by supplementary table
of map unit descriptions compiled and edited by W.
H. McNab and R.G. Bailey
Cleland DT, Crow TR, Saunders SC, Dickmann DI,
Maclean AL, Jordan JK, Watson RL, Sloan AM,
Brosofske KD (2004) Characterizing historical and
modern fire regimes in Michigan (USA): a landscape
ecosystem approach. Landsc Ecol 19:313–325
Fule PZ, Crouse JE, Roccaforte JP, Kalies EL (2012) Do
thinning and/or burning treatments in western USA
ponderosa or Jeffery pine-dominated forest help
restore natural fire behavior? For Ecol Manage
269:68–81
Landres PB, Morgan P, Swanson FJ (1999) Overview of
the use of natural variability concepts in managing
ecological systems. Ecol Appl 9(4):1379–1388
Littell JS, McKenzie D, Peterson DL, Westerling AL
(2009) Climate and wildfire area burned in western
U.S. ecoprovinces. 1916–2003. Ecol Appl 19
(4):1003–1021
Malamud BD, Millington JDA, Perry FW (2005)
Characterizing wildfire regimes in the United States.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:4694–4699
McKenzie D, Peterson DL, Alvarado E (1996) Predicting
the effect of fire on large-scale vegetation patterns in
North America. Research Paper PNW-RP-489. USDA
Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station,
Portland, OR, 38 pp
Miller JD, Collins BM, Lutz JA et al (2012) Differences
in wildfire among ecoregions and land management
agencies in the Sierra Nevada region, California,
USA. Ecosphere 3(9):80, http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/
ES12-00158.1
Peterson DL, Littell JS (2012) Risk assessment for wildfire in the Western United States. In: Vose JM,
Peterson DL, Patel-Weynand T (eds) Effects of climatic variability and change on forest ecosystems: a
comprehensive science synthesis for the U.S. Forest
sector. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-870.
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research
Station, Portland, OR, pp 227–252
Rogers BM, Neilson RP, Drapek R, Lenihan JM, Wells
JR, Bachelet D, Law BE (2011) Impacts of climate
change on fire regimes and carbon stocks of the U.S.
Pacific Northwest. J Geophys Res 116:G03037.
doi:10.1029/2011JG001695
Savage M (2003) Restoring natural systems through natural processes. Quivera Coalit Newsl 6(2):1, 20–27
Schmidt KM, Menakis JP, Hardy CC, Hann WJ, Bunnell
DL (2002) Development of coarse-scale spatial data
for wildland fire and fuel management. General Technical Report RMRS GTR-87. USDA Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO,
41 pp
Sommers WT, Coloff SG, Conard SG (2011) Synthesis of
knowledge: fire history and climate change. Report
submitted to the Joint Fire Science Program for Project
09-2-01-09, 190 pp with 6 Appendices. http://www.
firescience.gov/projects/09-2-01-9/project/09-2-01-9_
09_2_01_9_Deliverable_01.pdf
Spracklen DV, Mickley LJ, Logan JA, Hudman RC,
Yevich R, Flannigan MD, Westerling AL (2009)
Impacts of climate change from 2000 to 2050 on
wildfire activity and carbonaceous aerosol
concentrations in the western United States. J
Geophys
Res
114:D20301.
doi:10.1029/
2008JD010966
Swanson FJ, Franklin JF, Sedell JR (1990) Landscape
patterns, disturbance, and management in the Pacific
Northwest, USA. In: Zonneveld IS, Forman RTT (eds)
Changing landscapes: an ecological perspective.
Springer, New York, pp 191–213
The Nature Conservancy (2004) Fire, ecosystems and
people. Global Fire Initiative, Tallahassee, FL, p 9
Turner MF, Romme WH (1994) Landscape dynamics in
crown fire ecosystems. Landsc Ecol 9(1):59–77
Vale TR (1982) Plants and people. Association of American Geographers Press, Washington, DC, 88 pp
Westerling AL, Fershunov A, Cayon DR, Barnett TP
(2002) Long-lead statistical forecasts of area burned
in western U.S. wildfires by ecosystem province. Int J
Wildland Fire 13:257–266
Yue X, Mickley LJ, Logan JA, Kaplan JO (2013) Ensemble projections of wildfire activity and carbonaceous
aerosol concentrations over the western United States
in the mid-21st century. Atmos Environ 77:767–780
References
135