22
Marine Mammal Physiology: Requisites for Ocean Living
Another challenge relates to the flow simulations of the boundary layer of animals covered with fur or with complex skin structures such as dermal ridges (Erdsack et al. 2015),
although CFD could be used here to provide some insight (Oeffner and Lauder 2012).
However, CFD is not an exact simulation of the fluid at play because of its approximations of small-scale turbulence, which is difficult to describe computationally. An alternative could be a technique known as direct numerical simulations (DNS), which in principle
could allow a more exact treatment of the turbulence happening in-between hair strands
or even within dermal ridges, down to the smallest turbulence scale possible, the so-called
Kolmogorov scale. Finally, the Holy Grail of marine mammal hydrodynamics would involve
using fluid–structure interactions (FSIs) for computer simulations of cetacean swimming.
The primary challenge of this approach is the difficulty of characterizing all relevant input
parameters despite the physics being well understood.
Acknowledgment
We acknowledge Deborah J. Albert for illustrating Figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4.
References
Adachi, T., J.L. Maresh, P.W. Robinson et al. 2014. The foraging benefits of being fat in a highly migratory marine mammal. Proceedings of the Royal Society B—Biological Sciences 281(1797):20142120.
Ahlborn, B.K. 2004. Zoological Physics, 2nd edn. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Ahlborn, B.K., R.W. Blake, and K.H.S. Chan. 2009. Optimal fineness ratio for minimum drag in large
whales. Canadian Journal of Zoology—Revue Canadienne De Zoologie 87(2):124–131.
Alex Shorter, K., M.M. Murray, M. Johnson, M. Moore, and L.E. Howle. 2014. Drag of suction cup tags
on swimming animals: Modeling and measurement. Marine Mammal Science 30(2):726–746.
Aleyev, Y.G. 1977. Nekton. The Hague, the Netherlands: Junk.
Berta, A., C.E. Ray, and A.R. Wyss. 1989. Skeleton of the oldest known pinniped Enaliarctos mealsi.
Science 244:60–62.
Blake, R.W. 1981. Influence of pectoral fin shape on thrust and drag in labriform locomotion. Journal
of Zoology 194:53–66.
Bloor, D. 2011. The Enigma of the Aerofoil, Rival Theories in Aerodynamics, 1909–1930. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
Bose, N. and J. Lien. 1990. Energy absorption from ocean waves: A free ride for cetaceans. Proceedings
of the Royal Society B—Biological Sciences 240:591–605.
Bose, N., J. Lien, and J. Ahia. 1990. Measurements of the bodies and flukes of several cetacean species. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B—Biological Sciences 242(1305):163–173.
Brodie, P.F. 1975. Cetacean energetics, an overview of intraspecific size variation. Ecology 56(1):152–161.
Caldwell, D.K. and H.M. Fields. 1959. Surf-riding by Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphins. Journal of
Mammalogy 40:454–455.
Chirayath, V., O. Galvan-Lopez, and R. Instrella. 2015. Blind wave field characterization from fluid
lensing. https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:cg133bt2261/Chirayath_Lopez_Instrella_
Blind_Wave_Field_Characterization_from_Fluid_Lensing.pdf.
Cooper, L.N., N. Sedano, S. Johansson et al. 2008. Hydrodynamic performance of the minke whale
(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) flipper. Journal of Experimental Biology 211(12):1859–1867.
Coughlin, B.L. and F.E. Fish. 2009. Underwater locomotion of the hippopotamus: Reduced gravity
movements for a massive mammal. Journal of Mammalogy 90:675–679.
Curren, K.C. 1992. Designs for swimming: Morphometrics and swimming dynamics of several cetacean species. Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.
Dagg, A.I. and D.E. Windsor. 1972. Swimming in northern terrestrial mammals. Canadian Journal of
Zoology 50:117–130.
Daniel, T.L. 1984. Unsteady aspects of aquatic locomotion. American Zoologist 24:121–134.
Marine Mammal Physiology: Requisites for Ocean Living
Another challenge relates to the flow simulations of the boundary layer of animals covered with fur or with complex skin structures such as dermal ridges (Erdsack et al. 2015),
although CFD could be used here to provide some insight (Oeffner and Lauder 2012).
However, CFD is not an exact simulation of the fluid at play because of its approximations of small-scale turbulence, which is difficult to describe computationally. An alternative could be a technique known as direct numerical simulations (DNS), which in principle
could allow a more exact treatment of the turbulence happening in-between hair strands
or even within dermal ridges, down to the smallest turbulence scale possible, the so-called
Kolmogorov scale. Finally, the Holy Grail of marine mammal hydrodynamics would involve
using fluid–structure interactions (FSIs) for computer simulations of cetacean swimming.
The primary challenge of this approach is the difficulty of characterizing all relevant input
parameters despite the physics being well understood.
Acknowledgment
We acknowledge Deborah J. Albert for illustrating Figures 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4.
References
Adachi, T., J.L. Maresh, P.W. Robinson et al. 2014. The foraging benefits of being fat in a highly migratory marine mammal. Proceedings of the Royal Society B—Biological Sciences 281(1797):20142120.
Ahlborn, B.K. 2004. Zoological Physics, 2nd edn. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Ahlborn, B.K., R.W. Blake, and K.H.S. Chan. 2009. Optimal fineness ratio for minimum drag in large
whales. Canadian Journal of Zoology—Revue Canadienne De Zoologie 87(2):124–131.
Alex Shorter, K., M.M. Murray, M. Johnson, M. Moore, and L.E. Howle. 2014. Drag of suction cup tags
on swimming animals: Modeling and measurement. Marine Mammal Science 30(2):726–746.
Aleyev, Y.G. 1977. Nekton. The Hague, the Netherlands: Junk.
Berta, A., C.E. Ray, and A.R. Wyss. 1989. Skeleton of the oldest known pinniped Enaliarctos mealsi.
Science 244:60–62.
Blake, R.W. 1981. Influence of pectoral fin shape on thrust and drag in labriform locomotion. Journal
of Zoology 194:53–66.
Bloor, D. 2011. The Enigma of the Aerofoil, Rival Theories in Aerodynamics, 1909–1930. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
Bose, N. and J. Lien. 1990. Energy absorption from ocean waves: A free ride for cetaceans. Proceedings
of the Royal Society B—Biological Sciences 240:591–605.
Bose, N., J. Lien, and J. Ahia. 1990. Measurements of the bodies and flukes of several cetacean species. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B—Biological Sciences 242(1305):163–173.
Brodie, P.F. 1975. Cetacean energetics, an overview of intraspecific size variation. Ecology 56(1):152–161.
Caldwell, D.K. and H.M. Fields. 1959. Surf-riding by Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphins. Journal of
Mammalogy 40:454–455.
Chirayath, V., O. Galvan-Lopez, and R. Instrella. 2015. Blind wave field characterization from fluid
lensing. https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:cg133bt2261/Chirayath_Lopez_Instrella_
Blind_Wave_Field_Characterization_from_Fluid_Lensing.pdf.
Cooper, L.N., N. Sedano, S. Johansson et al. 2008. Hydrodynamic performance of the minke whale
(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) flipper. Journal of Experimental Biology 211(12):1859–1867.
Coughlin, B.L. and F.E. Fish. 2009. Underwater locomotion of the hippopotamus: Reduced gravity
movements for a massive mammal. Journal of Mammalogy 90:675–679.
Curren, K.C. 1992. Designs for swimming: Morphometrics and swimming dynamics of several cetacean species. Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.
Dagg, A.I. and D.E. Windsor. 1972. Swimming in northern terrestrial mammals. Canadian Journal of
Zoology 50:117–130.
Daniel, T.L. 1984. Unsteady aspects of aquatic locomotion. American Zoologist 24:121–134.