Social and Economic Aspects of Sea Turtle Conservation
365
turtles. Only rarely is one able to measure competing bids that stem from both use
and nonuse value. In an example of just such a bid competition, Amiteye and Moller
(2000) describe the purchase of an adult leatherback in Ghana for approximately
$19 in order to keep it from being slaughtered for food.
The most widely used method to measure the total economic value of a resource
is contingent valuation (CV; for a methodological review, see Bjornstad and Kahn,
1996). CV is described as a direct valuation method and as a stated-preference
method because it involves asking people directly how much they would be willing
to pay for a resource. Although widely used, CV is a controversial method. As a
nonmarket assessment, CV does not measure actual human behavior in the marketplace, where economists turn for most economic indicators. The power of the method
is that it can be used to estimate option, existence, and bequest values, as well as
use values, and can also measure people’s attitudes and motives behind their stated
preferences. Much of the controversy about CV lies in the unsure art of survey
design; that is, how to ask the questions (Spash et al., 2000). Only recently have CV
studies included valuation of sea turtles (Milon et al., 1998; Tisdell and Wilson,
2001a; 2001b; in press; in review; Wilson and Tisdell, 2001; Shivlani et al., in press).
CV methods have been widely used to provide information on conservation
activity. The method has provided value estimates for the diversity of ecosystems
in which sea turtles play a role (Spash et al., 2000), and has been proposed for
appraising the value of preserving endangered species (Burton, 1998) and of maintaining the abundance of charismatic species (Bulte and Van Kooten, 1999).
The measurement of value by CV methods varies greatly with the public’s
perception of supply and its expression of demand. Whitehead (1993) studied the
public’s willingness to pay for preserving nesting loggerheads in North Carolina
in order to test how well a CV model would predict total economic value under
turtle supply-and-demand uncertainty. As part of a public questionnaire that asked
what dollar value each respondent placed on preserving loggerheads, respondents
were also asked about their perceptions of demand (belief in the chances of them
traveling to experience North Carolina loggerheads) and supply (belief in the
probability that North Carolina loggerheads being extirpated). Whitehead concluded that when these measures of supply-and-demand uncertainty were factored
into CV models, the models gave valid estimates of total economic value for
nesting loggerheads. Accounting for this uncertainty, Whitehead found that North
Carolina residents were willing to pay approximately $11/year/respondent to keep
loggerheads extant for at least 25 years.
Many laws promulgated to protect sea turtles have provisions for fines with
monetary values based on the number of sea turtles taken. Although the level of
these fines may be arbitrarily set for many species of protected organisms, the fines
provide an additional indication of how sea turtles are valued. Penalties for taking
sea turtles can vary a great deal, even within one area of overlapping government
jurisdictions. For example, in Florida, taking one sea turtle (to include harassment
and injury as well as killing) costs between $100 and $600, and could include
imprisonment with the fine [Florida Statutes Chapter 370.021(1),(2)(e)]. Taking the
same turtle, as prosecuted by federal authorities of the U.S., would cost up to $25,000
(if prosecuted as a civil case) or up to $50,000 (if prosecuted as a criminal case with
1123 book.book Page 365 Monday, November 11, 2002 11:11 AM
365
turtles. Only rarely is one able to measure competing bids that stem from both use
and nonuse value. In an example of just such a bid competition, Amiteye and Moller
(2000) describe the purchase of an adult leatherback in Ghana for approximately
$19 in order to keep it from being slaughtered for food.
The most widely used method to measure the total economic value of a resource
is contingent valuation (CV; for a methodological review, see Bjornstad and Kahn,
1996). CV is described as a direct valuation method and as a stated-preference
method because it involves asking people directly how much they would be willing
to pay for a resource. Although widely used, CV is a controversial method. As a
nonmarket assessment, CV does not measure actual human behavior in the marketplace, where economists turn for most economic indicators. The power of the method
is that it can be used to estimate option, existence, and bequest values, as well as
use values, and can also measure people’s attitudes and motives behind their stated
preferences. Much of the controversy about CV lies in the unsure art of survey
design; that is, how to ask the questions (Spash et al., 2000). Only recently have CV
studies included valuation of sea turtles (Milon et al., 1998; Tisdell and Wilson,
2001a; 2001b; in press; in review; Wilson and Tisdell, 2001; Shivlani et al., in press).
CV methods have been widely used to provide information on conservation
activity. The method has provided value estimates for the diversity of ecosystems
in which sea turtles play a role (Spash et al., 2000), and has been proposed for
appraising the value of preserving endangered species (Burton, 1998) and of maintaining the abundance of charismatic species (Bulte and Van Kooten, 1999).
The measurement of value by CV methods varies greatly with the public’s
perception of supply and its expression of demand. Whitehead (1993) studied the
public’s willingness to pay for preserving nesting loggerheads in North Carolina
in order to test how well a CV model would predict total economic value under
turtle supply-and-demand uncertainty. As part of a public questionnaire that asked
what dollar value each respondent placed on preserving loggerheads, respondents
were also asked about their perceptions of demand (belief in the chances of them
traveling to experience North Carolina loggerheads) and supply (belief in the
probability that North Carolina loggerheads being extirpated). Whitehead concluded that when these measures of supply-and-demand uncertainty were factored
into CV models, the models gave valid estimates of total economic value for
nesting loggerheads. Accounting for this uncertainty, Whitehead found that North
Carolina residents were willing to pay approximately $11/year/respondent to keep
loggerheads extant for at least 25 years.
Many laws promulgated to protect sea turtles have provisions for fines with
monetary values based on the number of sea turtles taken. Although the level of
these fines may be arbitrarily set for many species of protected organisms, the fines
provide an additional indication of how sea turtles are valued. Penalties for taking
sea turtles can vary a great deal, even within one area of overlapping government
jurisdictions. For example, in Florida, taking one sea turtle (to include harassment
and injury as well as killing) costs between $100 and $600, and could include
imprisonment with the fine [Florida Statutes Chapter 370.021(1),(2)(e)]. Taking the
same turtle, as prosecuted by federal authorities of the U.S., would cost up to $25,000
(if prosecuted as a civil case) or up to $50,000 (if prosecuted as a criminal case with
1123 book.book Page 365 Monday, November 11, 2002 11:11 AM