26
Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume II
1.4 ANCIENT HISTORIC ACCOUNTS OF
HUMAN–TURTLE INTERACTIONS
Some of the oldest written accounts interpreted as referring to turtles are inscribed
on cuneiform tablets from Sumerian cities of the Ur III Period, about 2100–2000
B.C.E. (Owen, 1981; Englund, 1990), and even as far back as the late Uruk Period
(3500–3000 B.C.E.) there appear to be archaic texts that record an active trade in
marine products, including turtles (Englund, 1998). An analysis of Ur texts at the
time of the early Larsa kings (about 2000–1600 B.C.E.) showed the importance of
trade and transport, including seafaring merchants from Mesopotamia (Leemans,
1960); and an analysis of pottery from eastern Arabia supported the conclusion that
there were active merchants and exploiters from Ur operating in the Arabian–Persian
Gulf (Oates et al., 1977).
Perhaps the most influential archaic text that has been used to suggest the
importance of marine turtles to ancient Mesopotamian societies is the record of
religious tithe. Among the various gifts given to the goddess Ningal of Ur were “30
finger-shaped(?) pieces of ‘ba-sig 4 ’.” Leemans (1960: 25, footnote 4, 34) explained
that “ba is a tortoise” (chelonian) and “sig 4 may denote things like spine or case.”
From this interpretation, and from the fact that the use of tortoiseshell was reported
in Egypt “from an early date” (cf. Lucas, 1948), Leemans deduced that it is “unlikely
that tortoise shell should have been entirely unknown in southern Mesopotamia.”
In fact, the sign “ba” is interpreted to be a short form of the term bal-gi (or
balgi), which refers to “turtle.” The sign “sig 4 ” (meaning “brick,” pronounced “sig,”
and reading “murgu”) is taken to mean “back” or “shoulder area” (Englund, in litt.,
2, 3, 10, 12 June 2002). With these interpretations of the cuneiform signs it seems
plausible that tortoiseshell was described, but it is far from confirmed.
Farber (1974) did a detailed linguistic study of “ba,” and he clarified that there
is no substantiated species identification for this term. His analysis showed that in
pre-Sargonic texts the sign “ba” was listed together with marine fishes; however, in
Sargonic times and later it was listed as its own item. In some cases, the numbers
of “ba” reported were in the thousands, and this gave rise to the question whether
eggs were being referred to.
Textual references from Mesopotamia indicate that turtles were used for food,
medicine, ritual food, and even food for royalty; before the Sargonic Period (i.e.,
earlier than 2350 B.C.E.) records of turtles were “not uncommon.” On the basis of
both textual and archaeological information from as early as “Old Babylonian
levels” (i.e., about 2000–1600 B.C.E.), it was concluded that “various types of
turtles played a significant and familiar role in the daily life of the inhabitants of
Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the Near East” (Owen, 1981: 41, 42, and references
therein).
In most cases, however, it is not clear what types of turtles are being referred
to, or even if they are marine species. Nonetheless, Englund (1998) reasoned that
in the context of the late Uruk references to unspecified turtles, it was most likely
that marine turtles were reported. His earlier study (1990) indicated that in many of
the Ur III texts turtles were mentioned in the context of marine fisheries, and the
animals were delivered to state larders in a processed or conserved form. Olijdam
1123_C01.fm Page 26 Friday, November 15, 2002 11:13 AM
Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume II
1.4 ANCIENT HISTORIC ACCOUNTS OF
HUMAN–TURTLE INTERACTIONS
Some of the oldest written accounts interpreted as referring to turtles are inscribed
on cuneiform tablets from Sumerian cities of the Ur III Period, about 2100–2000
B.C.E. (Owen, 1981; Englund, 1990), and even as far back as the late Uruk Period
(3500–3000 B.C.E.) there appear to be archaic texts that record an active trade in
marine products, including turtles (Englund, 1998). An analysis of Ur texts at the
time of the early Larsa kings (about 2000–1600 B.C.E.) showed the importance of
trade and transport, including seafaring merchants from Mesopotamia (Leemans,
1960); and an analysis of pottery from eastern Arabia supported the conclusion that
there were active merchants and exploiters from Ur operating in the Arabian–Persian
Gulf (Oates et al., 1977).
Perhaps the most influential archaic text that has been used to suggest the
importance of marine turtles to ancient Mesopotamian societies is the record of
religious tithe. Among the various gifts given to the goddess Ningal of Ur were “30
finger-shaped(?) pieces of ‘ba-sig 4 ’.” Leemans (1960: 25, footnote 4, 34) explained
that “ba is a tortoise” (chelonian) and “sig 4 may denote things like spine or case.”
From this interpretation, and from the fact that the use of tortoiseshell was reported
in Egypt “from an early date” (cf. Lucas, 1948), Leemans deduced that it is “unlikely
that tortoise shell should have been entirely unknown in southern Mesopotamia.”
In fact, the sign “ba” is interpreted to be a short form of the term bal-gi (or
balgi), which refers to “turtle.” The sign “sig 4 ” (meaning “brick,” pronounced “sig,”
and reading “murgu”) is taken to mean “back” or “shoulder area” (Englund, in litt.,
2, 3, 10, 12 June 2002). With these interpretations of the cuneiform signs it seems
plausible that tortoiseshell was described, but it is far from confirmed.
Farber (1974) did a detailed linguistic study of “ba,” and he clarified that there
is no substantiated species identification for this term. His analysis showed that in
pre-Sargonic texts the sign “ba” was listed together with marine fishes; however, in
Sargonic times and later it was listed as its own item. In some cases, the numbers
of “ba” reported were in the thousands, and this gave rise to the question whether
eggs were being referred to.
Textual references from Mesopotamia indicate that turtles were used for food,
medicine, ritual food, and even food for royalty; before the Sargonic Period (i.e.,
earlier than 2350 B.C.E.) records of turtles were “not uncommon.” On the basis of
both textual and archaeological information from as early as “Old Babylonian
levels” (i.e., about 2000–1600 B.C.E.), it was concluded that “various types of
turtles played a significant and familiar role in the daily life of the inhabitants of
Mesopotamia and elsewhere in the Near East” (Owen, 1981: 41, 42, and references
therein).
In most cases, however, it is not clear what types of turtles are being referred
to, or even if they are marine species. Nonetheless, Englund (1998) reasoned that
in the context of the late Uruk references to unspecified turtles, it was most likely
that marine turtles were reported. His earlier study (1990) indicated that in many of
the Ur III texts turtles were mentioned in the context of marine fisheries, and the
animals were delivered to state larders in a processed or conserved form. Olijdam
1123_C01.fm Page 26 Friday, November 15, 2002 11:13 AM