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The Biology of Sea Turtles, Vol. II
recognize their own emotional response to sea turtles; they see their views as informed
by science and value-free, whereas they characterize the views of others, particularly
those who disagree with them, as value laden (Campbell, 2002a). Finally, the way that
experts address issues of scientific uncertainty influences their views on use (Campbell,
2002a). Science as a foundation of Western culture in general, and its influence on
conservation policy specifically, are themselves subjects of study (Leach and Mearns,
1996; Nader, 1996; Pepper, 1984).
12.3.2 COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION (CBC)
12.3.2.1 Concept
Like sustainable use, CBC assumes that support of local people is critical to conservation success. The terms differ in their foci; although sustainable use focuses
on the use of the species itself, CBC is concerned with the local economic, social,
and cultural context in which conservation takes place, and with the role of communities in conservation projects (regardless of whether they have a use component).
There is no one definition of CBC, but it is commonly seen as having two objectives:
to enhance conservation and to provide social and economic gains for local people.
Ownership of conservation activities is a critical concern in CBC, and Little (1994)
suggests that CBC implies “at least some of the following: local-level, voluntary,
people-centered, participatory, decentralized, village based management.” Nevertheless, there is a wide spectrum of views on CBC, and the mix of components and
prioritization of objectives vary according to the definer.
Like sustainable use, CBC has experienced mixed success in practice. Some of
the major obstacles are, first, that CBC implementers fail to operationalize community participation in project identification, design, and management. Participation is
instead seen as a means to get people to support predetermined conservation programs (Hackel, 1999; Songorwa, 1999). Second, CBC projects have been undertaken
without an adequate understanding of the local social, economic, and cultural context
and by environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) with limited experience in community development (Wells and Brandon, 1993). Third, CBC has not
learned from the related field of participatory development, where organizations
primarily interested in human development have struggled to implement successful
participation (Little, 1994). Community itself is emerging as a problematic term,
and communities are too often assumed to be homogeneous (Section 12.1.4).
Although conservation can function in heterogeneous communities, understanding
community structure is necessary to determine appropriate and realistic incentives
for conservation (Campbell, 1998).
12.3.2.2 CBC and Sea Turtle Conservation
There are several accounts of community participation in sea turtle conservation,
including stories of former poachers turned conservationists, of fishermen collecting
data for conservation projects, and of communities participating in educational
programs (e.g., Schulz, 1975; Nichols et al., 2000; Lima, 2001). The extent to which
such projects are community-based is unknown, because research on the extent of
1123 book.book Page 328 Thursday, November 14, 2002 11:50 AM
The Biology of Sea Turtles, Vol. II
recognize their own emotional response to sea turtles; they see their views as informed
by science and value-free, whereas they characterize the views of others, particularly
those who disagree with them, as value laden (Campbell, 2002a). Finally, the way that
experts address issues of scientific uncertainty influences their views on use (Campbell,
2002a). Science as a foundation of Western culture in general, and its influence on
conservation policy specifically, are themselves subjects of study (Leach and Mearns,
1996; Nader, 1996; Pepper, 1984).
12.3.2 COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION (CBC)
12.3.2.1 Concept
Like sustainable use, CBC assumes that support of local people is critical to conservation success. The terms differ in their foci; although sustainable use focuses
on the use of the species itself, CBC is concerned with the local economic, social,
and cultural context in which conservation takes place, and with the role of communities in conservation projects (regardless of whether they have a use component).
There is no one definition of CBC, but it is commonly seen as having two objectives:
to enhance conservation and to provide social and economic gains for local people.
Ownership of conservation activities is a critical concern in CBC, and Little (1994)
suggests that CBC implies “at least some of the following: local-level, voluntary,
people-centered, participatory, decentralized, village based management.” Nevertheless, there is a wide spectrum of views on CBC, and the mix of components and
prioritization of objectives vary according to the definer.
Like sustainable use, CBC has experienced mixed success in practice. Some of
the major obstacles are, first, that CBC implementers fail to operationalize community participation in project identification, design, and management. Participation is
instead seen as a means to get people to support predetermined conservation programs (Hackel, 1999; Songorwa, 1999). Second, CBC projects have been undertaken
without an adequate understanding of the local social, economic, and cultural context
and by environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) with limited experience in community development (Wells and Brandon, 1993). Third, CBC has not
learned from the related field of participatory development, where organizations
primarily interested in human development have struggled to implement successful
participation (Little, 1994). Community itself is emerging as a problematic term,
and communities are too often assumed to be homogeneous (Section 12.1.4).
Although conservation can function in heterogeneous communities, understanding
community structure is necessary to determine appropriate and realistic incentives
for conservation (Campbell, 1998).
12.3.2.2 CBC and Sea Turtle Conservation
There are several accounts of community participation in sea turtle conservation,
including stories of former poachers turned conservationists, of fishermen collecting
data for conservation projects, and of communities participating in educational
programs (e.g., Schulz, 1975; Nichols et al., 2000; Lima, 2001). The extent to which
such projects are community-based is unknown, because research on the extent of
1123 book.book Page 328 Thursday, November 14, 2002 11:50 AM