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The Biology of Sea Turtles, Vol. II
as reflected in the current definition of conservation adopted by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Conservation is “…the management of human use of organisms or ecosystems to ensure such use is sustainable. Besides sustainable use,
conservation includes protection, maintenance, rehabilitation, restoration, and
enhancement of populations and ecosystems” (IUCN, 1980).
This shift arose as a number of shortcomings with protected areas became
evident, particularly when applied outside of their cultural context in developing
countries. The vision of humans as separate from nature, for example, can conflict
with local visions of human–environment relations (Ghimire and Pimbert, 1997),
and can undermine cultural norms and traditional or indigenous knowledge (Marks,
1984). The resulting cultural mismatch can sabotage conservation efforts; if local
people do not support a conservation undertaking, encroachment and illegal harvesting activities may result. Two responses to the problems experienced with transferring protected areas to developing countries are sustainable use and CBC, and these
are discussed in Section 12.3.
12.1.4 O THER K EY T ERMS
Other key terms in the discussion of culture and conservation are community,
indigenous, traditional, and subsistence — terms that are often used to delimit sea
turtle use. For example, a sea turtle egg-collecting project might be justified as a
traditional activity of indigenous people undertaken for subsistence purposes. Such
terms are rarely defined, and are thus problematic.
Community defines both actual social groups (i.e., the people of a district) and
the quality of relations among people (i.e., holding something in common, or a sense
of common interests or identity) (Williams, 1983). Community is also used to
distinguish the more direct and total relations between people from the more formal,
abstract, and instrumental relations of people with the state. “Community can be the
warmly persuasive word to describe an existing set of relationships” (Williams,
1983) and is rarely used in a negative sense.
Communities are increasingly seen as critical to the success of conservation
efforts, but there are difficulties associated with defining communities that may arise
from the term’s dual meaning. The people of a district may be assumed to equal the
relations among people, and in conservation practice, communities are often treated
as self-evident or generic, and homogeneous (Brosius et al., 1998; Leach et al., 1997;
Wells and Brandon, 1992; Western and Wright, 1994). Communities are also
assumed to share culture and related values of the environment. This is not always
the case, and a clear sense of who and what the community is will be critical for
conservation success at the local level.
Indigenous is defined as something “originating or occurring naturally in the
place or country specified” (Avis, 1980). The cultural claims of indigenous peoples
to use wildlife are often given greater weight than those of nonindigenous people.
For example, Donnelly (1994) describes sustainable use of sea turtles as “…designed
to promote controlled and renewable use of wildlife for the benefit of indigenous
people and endangered species.” Emphasis on indigenous assumes that use of sea
turtles by indigenous peoples has different impacts from use by nonindigenous
1123 book.book Page 310 Thursday, November 14, 2002 11:50 AM
The Biology of Sea Turtles, Vol. II
as reflected in the current definition of conservation adopted by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Conservation is “…the management of human use of organisms or ecosystems to ensure such use is sustainable. Besides sustainable use,
conservation includes protection, maintenance, rehabilitation, restoration, and
enhancement of populations and ecosystems” (IUCN, 1980).
This shift arose as a number of shortcomings with protected areas became
evident, particularly when applied outside of their cultural context in developing
countries. The vision of humans as separate from nature, for example, can conflict
with local visions of human–environment relations (Ghimire and Pimbert, 1997),
and can undermine cultural norms and traditional or indigenous knowledge (Marks,
1984). The resulting cultural mismatch can sabotage conservation efforts; if local
people do not support a conservation undertaking, encroachment and illegal harvesting activities may result. Two responses to the problems experienced with transferring protected areas to developing countries are sustainable use and CBC, and these
are discussed in Section 12.3.
12.1.4 O THER K EY T ERMS
Other key terms in the discussion of culture and conservation are community,
indigenous, traditional, and subsistence — terms that are often used to delimit sea
turtle use. For example, a sea turtle egg-collecting project might be justified as a
traditional activity of indigenous people undertaken for subsistence purposes. Such
terms are rarely defined, and are thus problematic.
Community defines both actual social groups (i.e., the people of a district) and
the quality of relations among people (i.e., holding something in common, or a sense
of common interests or identity) (Williams, 1983). Community is also used to
distinguish the more direct and total relations between people from the more formal,
abstract, and instrumental relations of people with the state. “Community can be the
warmly persuasive word to describe an existing set of relationships” (Williams,
1983) and is rarely used in a negative sense.
Communities are increasingly seen as critical to the success of conservation
efforts, but there are difficulties associated with defining communities that may arise
from the term’s dual meaning. The people of a district may be assumed to equal the
relations among people, and in conservation practice, communities are often treated
as self-evident or generic, and homogeneous (Brosius et al., 1998; Leach et al., 1997;
Wells and Brandon, 1992; Western and Wright, 1994). Communities are also
assumed to share culture and related values of the environment. This is not always
the case, and a clear sense of who and what the community is will be critical for
conservation success at the local level.
Indigenous is defined as something “originating or occurring naturally in the
place or country specified” (Avis, 1980). The cultural claims of indigenous peoples
to use wildlife are often given greater weight than those of nonindigenous people.
For example, Donnelly (1994) describes sustainable use of sea turtles as “…designed
to promote controlled and renewable use of wildlife for the benefit of indigenous
people and endangered species.” Emphasis on indigenous assumes that use of sea
turtles by indigenous peoples has different impacts from use by nonindigenous
1123 book.book Page 310 Thursday, November 14, 2002 11:50 AM