Present and Future Economic and Environmental Impacts of Microalgal Technology 323
Introduction of genes of interest for metabolism into a synthetic chromosome scaffold has been
reported by several methods, for example, inclusion of recombination sites, transposition, or homologous
recombination. Additional genetic elements to control expression of genes of interest will be required,
such as promoters and terminators, other regulatory elements, and chromatin organizing regions. The
other regulatory elements may contain synthetic genes expressing RNAi or sequence specific nucleases
such as Meganucleases, TALENs, zinc-finger nucleases or CRISPR/Cas Systems (Cong et al. 2013)
in order to attenuate endogenous gene function. To allow facile construction and manipulation of the
synthetic chromosome, elements enabling replication and selection in an alternative host, for example,
Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, can be included.
Synthetic chromosomes provide a scaffold for genetic engineering, enabling the ability to regulate
the target genes in a consistent context, free of the positional effects of random integration, and to stack
genetic traits. The implications of synthetic chromosome assembly extend beyond the limited pathway
and gene engineering of the past to include the engineering or whole metabolisms, regulatory networks,
and even ecosystems (Montague et al. 2012). While DNA modification and assembly are becoming
routine, regulatory RNA, DNA, and repetitive genetic elements can still provide challenges in genetic
engineering (Treangen and Salzberg 2012). However, in order for those potentials to be met, certain
limitations and barriers must be overcome. Once the genome of an organism has been sequenced and
annotated, the subsequent manipulation of the organism or it synthetic progeny is only limited by the
software for designing custom genomic sequences.
Considerations for the use of genetically modified microalgae
We have proposed, above, that genetic modification of microalgae may be a significant tool in the
development of new strains that will increase productivity and lower costs. We believe that this work
needs to be carried out responsibly. The following four paragraphs summarize our approach to GM
development of microalgal strains.
GM technology is part of the solution. GM technology is not the only solution. There are other activities
that can help develop more robust and productive processes for the cultivation, harvest, and processing of
microalgae. But, these may produce relatively small improvements; our goal is to apply GM technology
wherever game-changing improvements are needed.
Safety. It is critically important to demonstrate the safety of the products and services provided by GM
microalgae and these microorganisms must be deployed in an environmentally responsible manner.
This might include physical control measures (such as deployment in enclosed PBRs) or genetic control
measures that would render the microalga unable to compete with native species if accidentally released.
Our goal is to prevent the spread of GM microalgae outside of the cultivation area.
Food and feed applications. We believe that consumer educations is critical. To help with this task, we
support appropriate labeling of the products and services and that information is made widely available.
Our goal is to offer the consumer choices, GM and non-GM produced.
Development of guidelines. To develop guidelines on the use of GM microalgae it is imperative to
collaborate with stakeholders such as governments, universities, consumers, and others. Synthetic
Genomics has proactively worked with policymakers to establish guidelines. One example is our
participation in a 20 month study funded by the Afred P. Sloan Foundation on the safety and security
concerns of this technology (Garfinkel et al. 2007). Another example is the work carried out by the 2010
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues (http://bioethics.gov/cms/synthetic-biologyreport). Also, the US Environmental Protection Agency already has a framework for reviewing and
approving genetiacally modified organisms for cultivation, which applies to microalgae (Environmental
Release Application under the Toxic Substances Control Act, TERA). Our goal is to develop and establish
guidelines for responsible development and deployment of this technology.
Introduction of genes of interest for metabolism into a synthetic chromosome scaffold has been
reported by several methods, for example, inclusion of recombination sites, transposition, or homologous
recombination. Additional genetic elements to control expression of genes of interest will be required,
such as promoters and terminators, other regulatory elements, and chromatin organizing regions. The
other regulatory elements may contain synthetic genes expressing RNAi or sequence specific nucleases
such as Meganucleases, TALENs, zinc-finger nucleases or CRISPR/Cas Systems (Cong et al. 2013)
in order to attenuate endogenous gene function. To allow facile construction and manipulation of the
synthetic chromosome, elements enabling replication and selection in an alternative host, for example,
Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, can be included.
Synthetic chromosomes provide a scaffold for genetic engineering, enabling the ability to regulate
the target genes in a consistent context, free of the positional effects of random integration, and to stack
genetic traits. The implications of synthetic chromosome assembly extend beyond the limited pathway
and gene engineering of the past to include the engineering or whole metabolisms, regulatory networks,
and even ecosystems (Montague et al. 2012). While DNA modification and assembly are becoming
routine, regulatory RNA, DNA, and repetitive genetic elements can still provide challenges in genetic
engineering (Treangen and Salzberg 2012). However, in order for those potentials to be met, certain
limitations and barriers must be overcome. Once the genome of an organism has been sequenced and
annotated, the subsequent manipulation of the organism or it synthetic progeny is only limited by the
software for designing custom genomic sequences.
Considerations for the use of genetically modified microalgae
We have proposed, above, that genetic modification of microalgae may be a significant tool in the
development of new strains that will increase productivity and lower costs. We believe that this work
needs to be carried out responsibly. The following four paragraphs summarize our approach to GM
development of microalgal strains.
GM technology is part of the solution. GM technology is not the only solution. There are other activities
that can help develop more robust and productive processes for the cultivation, harvest, and processing of
microalgae. But, these may produce relatively small improvements; our goal is to apply GM technology
wherever game-changing improvements are needed.
Safety. It is critically important to demonstrate the safety of the products and services provided by GM
microalgae and these microorganisms must be deployed in an environmentally responsible manner.
This might include physical control measures (such as deployment in enclosed PBRs) or genetic control
measures that would render the microalga unable to compete with native species if accidentally released.
Our goal is to prevent the spread of GM microalgae outside of the cultivation area.
Food and feed applications. We believe that consumer educations is critical. To help with this task, we
support appropriate labeling of the products and services and that information is made widely available.
Our goal is to offer the consumer choices, GM and non-GM produced.
Development of guidelines. To develop guidelines on the use of GM microalgae it is imperative to
collaborate with stakeholders such as governments, universities, consumers, and others. Synthetic
Genomics has proactively worked with policymakers to establish guidelines. One example is our
participation in a 20 month study funded by the Afred P. Sloan Foundation on the safety and security
concerns of this technology (Garfinkel et al. 2007). Another example is the work carried out by the 2010
Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues (http://bioethics.gov/cms/synthetic-biologyreport). Also, the US Environmental Protection Agency already has a framework for reviewing and
approving genetiacally modified organisms for cultivation, which applies to microalgae (Environmental
Release Application under the Toxic Substances Control Act, TERA). Our goal is to develop and establish
guidelines for responsible development and deployment of this technology.