Present and Future Economic and Environmental Impacts of Microalgal Technology 317
sequences encoded in the genomes with biological function (Lopez et al. 2011), a process known as
annotation or functional genomics. While most genome assembly projects generate annotations for
predicted protein sequences, they are usually limited and integrate functional terms from a small number
of databases. There are around 20 algal eukaryotic genomes in draft form that are publically available.
Several commercial entities and research institutes have proprietary genomes in-house and are considered
potential intellectual property upon specific utilities of these strains. Synthetic Genomics has many algal
genomes, metagenomes, and transcriptomes that are considered almost complete when compared to
the assembly and annotation of public counterparts. This level of assigning biological function comes
from a legacy of decades of genomic and bioinfomatic knowledge accrued during the human genome
project, at The Institute of Genome Research (TIGR) and J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), and a drive
to commercial utilization of strains, genes, RNA, and proteins to meet the needs of pharmaceutical or
industrial innovation to address the unmet needs of disease, sustainable food, fuels, and chemicals. The
culmination of this heritage is a dynamic bioinformatics proprietary software platform; Archetype™
developed at Synthetic Genomics. The ability to assemble the Gigabases of genetic data, annotate, and
re-annotate genomes’ genes, RNAs, and proteins based on literature and biochemical functionality.
This capacity provides an unparalleled technology advantage in the field of synthetic biology where
the assembly of functional genes and other genetic elements (regulatory and structural) is key to the
programming of new pathways and cells.
The value in this type of gene discovery is that new genes, or different versions of genes, can be
found that might have advantages over others found in, for example, commercial crop plants. Companies
are taking advantage of this concept. For example, Sapphire Energy has a collaboration with Monsanto
to leverage algal expertise and research tools, which can be used to screen for promising traits in algae
that might have applicability in modern agriculture. The use of algal traits may be two fold; impact on
traditional agricultural crops (corn, wheat, cotton, and soy) and accelerate commercializing algae as
a renewable energy crop. Sapphire plans to focus on identifying genes that positively affect growth
in algae, which might increase crop yields as well. The idea is that a discovery platform in algae is a
more rapid approach than the conventional plant approach undertaken by companies like Pioneer Hybrid,
Syngenta, and Monsanto because of the much faster generation time. Syngenta had a successful program
with Diversa Corp. using a similar approach in heterotrophic microbes such as E. coli and yeast, which
lead to the discovery of an alpha-amylase (Enogen®) and corn amylase to improve ethanol production.
Genetically engineered plants which produce essential omega-3 fish oils could offer a new way of
improving people’s diets. Presently, the only sources of EPA and DHA are marine microalgae and the
fish that move these algal fats up the food chain. As the availability of fish decreases, other sources for
omega-3 fatty acids are drawing interest. Monsanto has developed a GMO soy that expressed genes for
two enzymes – one derived from a flower (Primula juliae), the other from a red bread mold (Neurospora
crassa) effectively turning the legume’s oil into an omega-3 rich oil (Harris et al. 2008). In 2011, the
FDA granted GRAS status to stearidonic acid-enriched soy, but the FDA has not yet granted Monsanto
permission to grow this genetically modified line of soybeans in open fields.
Many algal strains are proficient at producing such oils and therefore represent genetic resources that
can be transferred into plants. In 2004, Bayer CropScience presented preliminary results from transgenic
flax equipped with algal genes, which can produce omega-3, omega-4, and other polyunsaturated fatty
acids (Breithaupt 2004). In recent years, work has intensified to move these genes and pathways into a
number of plant species. The eventual aim is to feed the GM-enhanced plants to animals such as chicken
and cattle so as to produce omega-3 enriched meat, milks, and eggs.
Wild population genes
Although genomes from microalgae are becoming more available, the large majority of microorganisms
are believed to be unculturable. Since 2003, scientists at JCVI have been on a quest to uncover novel
genes by sampling, sequencing, and analyzing the DNA of the microorganisms living in oceanic waters.
While this world is invisible to us, its importance is immeasurable: the microbes in the sea, land, and air
sustain our life on Earth. In the initial Sargasso Sea study, 200 liters of filtered surface seawater were used
sequences encoded in the genomes with biological function (Lopez et al. 2011), a process known as
annotation or functional genomics. While most genome assembly projects generate annotations for
predicted protein sequences, they are usually limited and integrate functional terms from a small number
of databases. There are around 20 algal eukaryotic genomes in draft form that are publically available.
Several commercial entities and research institutes have proprietary genomes in-house and are considered
potential intellectual property upon specific utilities of these strains. Synthetic Genomics has many algal
genomes, metagenomes, and transcriptomes that are considered almost complete when compared to
the assembly and annotation of public counterparts. This level of assigning biological function comes
from a legacy of decades of genomic and bioinfomatic knowledge accrued during the human genome
project, at The Institute of Genome Research (TIGR) and J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), and a drive
to commercial utilization of strains, genes, RNA, and proteins to meet the needs of pharmaceutical or
industrial innovation to address the unmet needs of disease, sustainable food, fuels, and chemicals. The
culmination of this heritage is a dynamic bioinformatics proprietary software platform; Archetype™
developed at Synthetic Genomics. The ability to assemble the Gigabases of genetic data, annotate, and
re-annotate genomes’ genes, RNAs, and proteins based on literature and biochemical functionality.
This capacity provides an unparalleled technology advantage in the field of synthetic biology where
the assembly of functional genes and other genetic elements (regulatory and structural) is key to the
programming of new pathways and cells.
The value in this type of gene discovery is that new genes, or different versions of genes, can be
found that might have advantages over others found in, for example, commercial crop plants. Companies
are taking advantage of this concept. For example, Sapphire Energy has a collaboration with Monsanto
to leverage algal expertise and research tools, which can be used to screen for promising traits in algae
that might have applicability in modern agriculture. The use of algal traits may be two fold; impact on
traditional agricultural crops (corn, wheat, cotton, and soy) and accelerate commercializing algae as
a renewable energy crop. Sapphire plans to focus on identifying genes that positively affect growth
in algae, which might increase crop yields as well. The idea is that a discovery platform in algae is a
more rapid approach than the conventional plant approach undertaken by companies like Pioneer Hybrid,
Syngenta, and Monsanto because of the much faster generation time. Syngenta had a successful program
with Diversa Corp. using a similar approach in heterotrophic microbes such as E. coli and yeast, which
lead to the discovery of an alpha-amylase (Enogen®) and corn amylase to improve ethanol production.
Genetically engineered plants which produce essential omega-3 fish oils could offer a new way of
improving people’s diets. Presently, the only sources of EPA and DHA are marine microalgae and the
fish that move these algal fats up the food chain. As the availability of fish decreases, other sources for
omega-3 fatty acids are drawing interest. Monsanto has developed a GMO soy that expressed genes for
two enzymes – one derived from a flower (Primula juliae), the other from a red bread mold (Neurospora
crassa) effectively turning the legume’s oil into an omega-3 rich oil (Harris et al. 2008). In 2011, the
FDA granted GRAS status to stearidonic acid-enriched soy, but the FDA has not yet granted Monsanto
permission to grow this genetically modified line of soybeans in open fields.
Many algal strains are proficient at producing such oils and therefore represent genetic resources that
can be transferred into plants. In 2004, Bayer CropScience presented preliminary results from transgenic
flax equipped with algal genes, which can produce omega-3, omega-4, and other polyunsaturated fatty
acids (Breithaupt 2004). In recent years, work has intensified to move these genes and pathways into a
number of plant species. The eventual aim is to feed the GM-enhanced plants to animals such as chicken
and cattle so as to produce omega-3 enriched meat, milks, and eggs.
Wild population genes
Although genomes from microalgae are becoming more available, the large majority of microorganisms
are believed to be unculturable. Since 2003, scientists at JCVI have been on a quest to uncover novel
genes by sampling, sequencing, and analyzing the DNA of the microorganisms living in oceanic waters.
While this world is invisible to us, its importance is immeasurable: the microbes in the sea, land, and air
sustain our life on Earth. In the initial Sargasso Sea study, 200 liters of filtered surface seawater were used