136 Marine Macro- and Microalgae: An Overview
al. (2011) have more recently reported that interesting activities can also be found with water extracts
of Persian Gulf rhodophytes from the Gracilariaceae family (Gracilaria corticata, G. salicornia,
G. corticata), displaying IC 50 values ranging from 38 to 74 μg/mL.
Antileishmanial activity
Concerning the algae activity against Leishmania sp., 122 species from 47 families of Chlorophyta
(26 species/9 families), Ochrophyta (33 species/13 families), and Rhodophyta (63 species/25 families)
phyla from European, Asian, Middle-East, and South American countries were screened by various
authors (Sabina et al. 2005; Lakshmi et al. 2006; Orhan et al. 2006; Freire-Pelegrin et al. 2008; Genovese
et al. 2009; Allmendinger et al. 2010; Felício et al. 2010; Spavieri et al. 2010a,b; Süzgeç-Selçuk et al.
2010; Dos Santos et al. 2010, 2011; Vonthron-Sénécheau et al. 2011; Fouladvand et al. 2011) towards
different Leishmania species (L. donovani, L. major, L. amazonensis, and L. mexicana).
Regarding the algae extracts activity against Leishmania promastigote forms, the IC 50 values ranged
from 10.9 to 105.0 µg/mL, 6.3 to 74.0 µg/mL and 34 to 125.0 µg/mL for the Ochrophyta, Rhodophyta,
and Chlorophyta phyla, respectively. The most potent activities against this parasite form were found in
rhodophytes (Table 4) with six species displaying IC 50 < 25 µg/mL, namely Laurencia pinnatifida (Sabina
et al. 2005), Laurencia microcladia (Freire-Pelegrin et al. 2008), Bostrychia tenella (Felício et al. 2010),
Asparagopsis armata and A. taxiformis (Genovese et al. 2009), and Scinaia hatei (Sabina et al. 2005).
As red algae are known to contain a wide range of secondary metabolites, such as halogenated monoand diterpenes, sterols, alkaloids, polyphenols, and sulphated sugars (Blunt et al. 2009) related with their
antifungal and antibacterial activity, Genovese et al. (2009) suggested that the inhibitory properties of
Asparagopsis could also be due to its contents in halogenated compounds.
From the Ochrophyta phylum, six species from three families were screened. The most relevant
results were observed with Turbinaria turbinata, Dictyota caribaea, and Lobophora variegata, displaying
antileishmanial activity with IC 50 < 50 µg/mL (Freire-Pelegrin et al. 2008).
Chlorophyta was the phylum with less potent activities against Leishmania promastigote forms,
with all reported 17 species from 6 families not revealing activities under 25 µg/mL. The lowest IC 50
values were obtained with the ethanol extracts of Caulerpa faridii (IC 50 = 34 µg/mL), C. racemosa
(IC 50 = 37.5 µg/mL), and Codium flabellatum (IC 50 = 34 µg/mL) (Sabina et al. 2005).
Regarding the amastigote form of the parasites, most studies used L. donovani. The inhibitory effect
of the tested marine macroalgae extracts ranged from 3.8 to 90.9 µg/mL, 9.5 to 85.6 µg/mL and 5.9 to
39.2 µg/mL for the Ochrophyta, Rhodophyta, and Chlorophyta phyla, respectively.
However, in contrast with the results observed with promastigote forms described above, higher
activities were found in species from the Ochrophyta phylum, namely in Bifurcaria bifurcata (Spavieri
et al. 2010a; Vonthron-Sénécheau et al. 2011), Halidrys siliquosa (Spavieri et al. 2010a), Dictyota
dichotoma, and Dictyopteris polypodioides (Vonthron-Sénécheau et al. 2011). All these species presented
extracts with IC 50 < 11 µg/mL. From the reviewed data, the Ulvaceae appears as one of the main sources,
among chlorophytes, of antileishmanial compounds for the axenic amastigote form (Orhan et al. 2006;
Spavieri et al. 2010b).
Within the 19 Rhodophyta families screened for antileishmanial on axenic amastigote forms,
only seven (Dumontiaceae, Rhodomelaceae, Ceramiaceae, Gelidiaceae, Plocamiaceae, Corallinaceae,
Dasyaceae) evidenced activities with IC 50 < 25 µg/mL (Table 4).
Considering the data obtained with pure compounds isolated from marine seaweeds, Marcolino
(2010) demonstrated that the sulphated acid polysaccharides obtained from Gayralia oxysperma,
Gymnogongrus griffithsiae, and Eucheuma denticulatum have leishmanicidal activity towards in
vitro intracellular amastigote forms of L. amazonensis, inhibiting parasite activity above 50% with a
concentration of 10 μg/mL. Likewise, Dos Santos et al. (2010) obtained promising results using the
sesquiterpene elatol isolated from the red alga Laurencia dendroidea against L. amazonensis promastigote
(IC 50 = 4.0 μM) and intracellular amastigote (IC 50 = 0.45 μM) forms.
Felício et al. (2010) have tested leishmanicidal activity of the hexane and dichloromethane extracts of
the marine Brazilian red alga Bostrychia tenella (IC 50 = 17.4 μg/mL) against L. amazonensis promastigotes,
al. (2011) have more recently reported that interesting activities can also be found with water extracts
of Persian Gulf rhodophytes from the Gracilariaceae family (Gracilaria corticata, G. salicornia,
G. corticata), displaying IC 50 values ranging from 38 to 74 μg/mL.
Antileishmanial activity
Concerning the algae activity against Leishmania sp., 122 species from 47 families of Chlorophyta
(26 species/9 families), Ochrophyta (33 species/13 families), and Rhodophyta (63 species/25 families)
phyla from European, Asian, Middle-East, and South American countries were screened by various
authors (Sabina et al. 2005; Lakshmi et al. 2006; Orhan et al. 2006; Freire-Pelegrin et al. 2008; Genovese
et al. 2009; Allmendinger et al. 2010; Felício et al. 2010; Spavieri et al. 2010a,b; Süzgeç-Selçuk et al.
2010; Dos Santos et al. 2010, 2011; Vonthron-Sénécheau et al. 2011; Fouladvand et al. 2011) towards
different Leishmania species (L. donovani, L. major, L. amazonensis, and L. mexicana).
Regarding the algae extracts activity against Leishmania promastigote forms, the IC 50 values ranged
from 10.9 to 105.0 µg/mL, 6.3 to 74.0 µg/mL and 34 to 125.0 µg/mL for the Ochrophyta, Rhodophyta,
and Chlorophyta phyla, respectively. The most potent activities against this parasite form were found in
rhodophytes (Table 4) with six species displaying IC 50 < 25 µg/mL, namely Laurencia pinnatifida (Sabina
et al. 2005), Laurencia microcladia (Freire-Pelegrin et al. 2008), Bostrychia tenella (Felício et al. 2010),
Asparagopsis armata and A. taxiformis (Genovese et al. 2009), and Scinaia hatei (Sabina et al. 2005).
As red algae are known to contain a wide range of secondary metabolites, such as halogenated monoand diterpenes, sterols, alkaloids, polyphenols, and sulphated sugars (Blunt et al. 2009) related with their
antifungal and antibacterial activity, Genovese et al. (2009) suggested that the inhibitory properties of
Asparagopsis could also be due to its contents in halogenated compounds.
From the Ochrophyta phylum, six species from three families were screened. The most relevant
results were observed with Turbinaria turbinata, Dictyota caribaea, and Lobophora variegata, displaying
antileishmanial activity with IC 50 < 50 µg/mL (Freire-Pelegrin et al. 2008).
Chlorophyta was the phylum with less potent activities against Leishmania promastigote forms,
with all reported 17 species from 6 families not revealing activities under 25 µg/mL. The lowest IC 50
values were obtained with the ethanol extracts of Caulerpa faridii (IC 50 = 34 µg/mL), C. racemosa
(IC 50 = 37.5 µg/mL), and Codium flabellatum (IC 50 = 34 µg/mL) (Sabina et al. 2005).
Regarding the amastigote form of the parasites, most studies used L. donovani. The inhibitory effect
of the tested marine macroalgae extracts ranged from 3.8 to 90.9 µg/mL, 9.5 to 85.6 µg/mL and 5.9 to
39.2 µg/mL for the Ochrophyta, Rhodophyta, and Chlorophyta phyla, respectively.
However, in contrast with the results observed with promastigote forms described above, higher
activities were found in species from the Ochrophyta phylum, namely in Bifurcaria bifurcata (Spavieri
et al. 2010a; Vonthron-Sénécheau et al. 2011), Halidrys siliquosa (Spavieri et al. 2010a), Dictyota
dichotoma, and Dictyopteris polypodioides (Vonthron-Sénécheau et al. 2011). All these species presented
extracts with IC 50 < 11 µg/mL. From the reviewed data, the Ulvaceae appears as one of the main sources,
among chlorophytes, of antileishmanial compounds for the axenic amastigote form (Orhan et al. 2006;
Spavieri et al. 2010b).
Within the 19 Rhodophyta families screened for antileishmanial on axenic amastigote forms,
only seven (Dumontiaceae, Rhodomelaceae, Ceramiaceae, Gelidiaceae, Plocamiaceae, Corallinaceae,
Dasyaceae) evidenced activities with IC 50 < 25 µg/mL (Table 4).
Considering the data obtained with pure compounds isolated from marine seaweeds, Marcolino
(2010) demonstrated that the sulphated acid polysaccharides obtained from Gayralia oxysperma,
Gymnogongrus griffithsiae, and Eucheuma denticulatum have leishmanicidal activity towards in
vitro intracellular amastigote forms of L. amazonensis, inhibiting parasite activity above 50% with a
concentration of 10 μg/mL. Likewise, Dos Santos et al. (2010) obtained promising results using the
sesquiterpene elatol isolated from the red alga Laurencia dendroidea against L. amazonensis promastigote
(IC 50 = 4.0 μM) and intracellular amastigote (IC 50 = 0.45 μM) forms.
Felício et al. (2010) have tested leishmanicidal activity of the hexane and dichloromethane extracts of
the marine Brazilian red alga Bostrychia tenella (IC 50 = 17.4 μg/mL) against L. amazonensis promastigotes,