The Virus Problem in the Windhoek Waste Water Reclamation Project
141
wastewaters or river water into which sewage is discharged, tertiary treatment is a sine
quanon.
4. Finally we have learnt that we can produce from secondary sewage purification plants
a quality water tailored to meet the requirements of many uses including the assurance
of a safe discharge into the environment.
The objective of wastewater reclamation has never been to force reclaimed sewage
down the throats of the public, neither by direct treatment of sewage nor by the
treatment of river water into which sewage effluent is discharged. The fundamental
objective is to solve the growing problem of water pollution and keep clean waters clean.
To do this pollution must be tackled at source and not allowed to spread throughout the
environment by discharge into waterways.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The technical assistance of Miss N. McKenny and Mr. B. W. Bateman is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1 BURNS, R. and SPROUL, O., "Virucidal effects of chlorine in wastewater" Jour. W.P.C.F., 39, 11
1834-1849(1967).
2CILLIE, G., VAN VUUREN, L., STANDER, G., and KOLBE, F., Third International Conference
on Water Pollution Research, Munich 1966 (1966).
3 CHANG, S., "Waterborne viral infections and their prevention". Bull Wld Hlth Org., 38, 401-414,
(1968).
4CLARKE, N, and CHANG, S., "Enteric viruses in water", J.A. W. W.A., 51, 1299-1317 (1959).
5 CLARKE, N., STEVENSON, R., CHANG, S. and KABLER, P., "Removal of enteric viruses from
sewage by activated sludge treatment", Am. J. Publ. Hlth, 51, 8, 1118-1129 (1961).
6 CLARKE, N., BERG, G., KABLER, P. and CHANG, S., "Human Enteric Viruses in water: Source
survival and Removability". Adv. in Wat. Poll. Res.,vo\ 2, 523-541. Pergamon Press, London 1964
(1964).
7 EUROPEAN STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WATER, World Health Organisation, Copenhagen
(1970).
8 GRABOW, W. and NUPEN, E., "Investigation of Hospital Effluents" (in preparation).
9 HART, O., Personal communication (1971).
10KELLY, S. and SANDERSON, W., "The effect of chlorine in water on enteric viruses". Am. J.
Pub. Hlth, 48, 1323-1334. (1958).
11 KELLY, S. and SANDERSON, W., "The effect of chlorine in water on enteric viruses". II. Effect
of combined chlorine on poliomyelitis and coxsackie viruses. Am. J. Pub. Hlth, 50, 14-20 (1960).
12KJELLANDER, J. and LUND, E. "Sensitivity of E. coli and poliovirus to different forms of
combined chlorine". J.A.W.W.A.,57, 893-900 (1965).
13LOTHROP, T., and SPROUL, O., "High level inactivation of viruses in wastewater by
cMorination",/. W.P.C.F., 41, 7, 567-575 (1969).
14 LUND, E., "Oxidation inactivation of different types of enteroviruses". Amer. Journ. Hygiene, 80,
1-10. (1964).
15 LUND, E., "The oxidation-potential concept of inactivation of poliovirus in sewage". Amer. Jour.
Epidemiology, 81, 141-145 (1965).
16 MARAIS, A., NUPEN, E., STANDER, G. and HOFFMAN, J., "A comparison of the inactivation of
Escherichia coli I and Poliovirus in polluted and unpolluted waters by chlorination". Proc. Conf.
Water for Peace. Wash. D.C. 670-687 (1967).
17 NEEFE, J. STOKES, J., and BATY, J., "Inactivation of the virus of infectious hepatitis in drinking
water". Am. J.Pub. Hlth, 37, 365-372 (1947).
18 NUPEN, E., "Virus studies on the Windhoek waste-water reclamation plant (S.W.A.)". Water
Research, 4, 661-672 (1970).
19SHUVAL, H., CYMHALISTA, S., WACHS, A., ZOHAR, Y. and GOLDBLUM, N., "The
inactivation of enteroviruses in sewage by chlorination". Third International Conference on Water
141
wastewaters or river water into which sewage is discharged, tertiary treatment is a sine
quanon.
4. Finally we have learnt that we can produce from secondary sewage purification plants
a quality water tailored to meet the requirements of many uses including the assurance
of a safe discharge into the environment.
The objective of wastewater reclamation has never been to force reclaimed sewage
down the throats of the public, neither by direct treatment of sewage nor by the
treatment of river water into which sewage effluent is discharged. The fundamental
objective is to solve the growing problem of water pollution and keep clean waters clean.
To do this pollution must be tackled at source and not allowed to spread throughout the
environment by discharge into waterways.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The technical assistance of Miss N. McKenny and Mr. B. W. Bateman is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1 BURNS, R. and SPROUL, O., "Virucidal effects of chlorine in wastewater" Jour. W.P.C.F., 39, 11
1834-1849(1967).
2CILLIE, G., VAN VUUREN, L., STANDER, G., and KOLBE, F., Third International Conference
on Water Pollution Research, Munich 1966 (1966).
3 CHANG, S., "Waterborne viral infections and their prevention". Bull Wld Hlth Org., 38, 401-414,
(1968).
4CLARKE, N, and CHANG, S., "Enteric viruses in water", J.A. W. W.A., 51, 1299-1317 (1959).
5 CLARKE, N., STEVENSON, R., CHANG, S. and KABLER, P., "Removal of enteric viruses from
sewage by activated sludge treatment", Am. J. Publ. Hlth, 51, 8, 1118-1129 (1961).
6 CLARKE, N., BERG, G., KABLER, P. and CHANG, S., "Human Enteric Viruses in water: Source
survival and Removability". Adv. in Wat. Poll. Res.,vo\ 2, 523-541. Pergamon Press, London 1964
(1964).
7 EUROPEAN STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WATER, World Health Organisation, Copenhagen
(1970).
8 GRABOW, W. and NUPEN, E., "Investigation of Hospital Effluents" (in preparation).
9 HART, O., Personal communication (1971).
10KELLY, S. and SANDERSON, W., "The effect of chlorine in water on enteric viruses". Am. J.
Pub. Hlth, 48, 1323-1334. (1958).
11 KELLY, S. and SANDERSON, W., "The effect of chlorine in water on enteric viruses". II. Effect
of combined chlorine on poliomyelitis and coxsackie viruses. Am. J. Pub. Hlth, 50, 14-20 (1960).
12KJELLANDER, J. and LUND, E. "Sensitivity of E. coli and poliovirus to different forms of
combined chlorine". J.A.W.W.A.,57, 893-900 (1965).
13LOTHROP, T., and SPROUL, O., "High level inactivation of viruses in wastewater by
cMorination",/. W.P.C.F., 41, 7, 567-575 (1969).
14 LUND, E., "Oxidation inactivation of different types of enteroviruses". Amer. Journ. Hygiene, 80,
1-10. (1964).
15 LUND, E., "The oxidation-potential concept of inactivation of poliovirus in sewage". Amer. Jour.
Epidemiology, 81, 141-145 (1965).
16 MARAIS, A., NUPEN, E., STANDER, G. and HOFFMAN, J., "A comparison of the inactivation of
Escherichia coli I and Poliovirus in polluted and unpolluted waters by chlorination". Proc. Conf.
Water for Peace. Wash. D.C. 670-687 (1967).
17 NEEFE, J. STOKES, J., and BATY, J., "Inactivation of the virus of infectious hepatitis in drinking
water". Am. J.Pub. Hlth, 37, 365-372 (1947).
18 NUPEN, E., "Virus studies on the Windhoek waste-water reclamation plant (S.W.A.)". Water
Research, 4, 661-672 (1970).
19SHUVAL, H., CYMHALISTA, S., WACHS, A., ZOHAR, Y. and GOLDBLUM, N., "The
inactivation of enteroviruses in sewage by chlorination". Third International Conference on Water