380
M A C D O N A L D , S T E WA RT, S T O P K A , A N D YA M A G U C H I
method of observation, we can distill an observed set of events or states into a
pattern that facilitates greater precision of interpretation and decreased risk of
fanciful anthropomorphism.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to M. Dawkins, R. Dunbar, D. Johnson, and two anonymous
reviewers for comments on an earlier draft. We also thank Luigi Boitani and
Todd Fuller for their invitation to participate in the conference that spawned
this book and for their forbearance as editors.
Literature Cited
Albonetti, M. E., J. Lazarus, D. W. Dickins, A. Whybrow, R. Schonheiter, J. Prenter, R.
Elwood, J. D. Newman, F. O. Odberg, L. Kaiser, M. H. Pham-Delegue, V. Verguelen,
J. C. Fentress, and M. L. Bocia. 1992. Software multiple review. The Observer: Software for behavioural research, version 2.0. Ethology, Ecology and Evolution 4: 401–414.
Altmann, J. 1974. Observational study of behaviour: Sampling methods. Behaviour 49:
227–267.
Appleby, M. C. 1983. The probability of linearity in hierarchies. Animal Behaviour 32:
600–608.
Arnoldmeeks, C. and J. J. McGlone. 1986. Validating techniques to sample behavior of
confined, young-pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 16: 149–155.
Axelrod, R. 1984. The evolution of co-operation. New York: Basic Books.
Axelrod, R. and W. D. Hamilton. 1981. The evolution of cooperation. Science 211:
1390–1396.
Barbault, R. 1988. Body size, ecological constraints, and the evolution of life-history strategies. In M. K. Hecht, B. Wallace, and G. T. Prance, eds., Evolutionary biology, 261–285.
New York: Plenum.
Bekoff, M. 1977. Quantitative studies of three areas of classical ethology: Social dominance, behavioural taxonomy, and behavioural variability. In B. Hazlett, ed., Quantitative methods in the study of animal behavior, 1–46. New York: Academic Press.
Bekoff, M. and D. Jamieson. 1997. Ethics and the study of carnivores: Doing science while
respecting animals. In J. L. Gittleman, ed., Carnivore behavior, ecology and evolution,
vol. 2, 15–45. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Berdoy, M., P. Smith, and D. W. Macdonald. 1994. Stability of social status in wild rats:
Age and the role of settled dominance. Behaviour 132: 193–212.
Berger, J. and C. Cunningham. 1995. Predation, sensitivity and sex: Why female black rhinoceroses outlive males. Behavioural Ecology 6: 57–64.
Bernstein, I. S. 1991. An empirical comparison of focal and ad-libitum scoring with commentary on instantaneous scans, all occurrence and one-zero techniques. Animal
Behaviour 42: 721–728.
M A C D O N A L D , S T E WA RT, S T O P K A , A N D YA M A G U C H I
method of observation, we can distill an observed set of events or states into a
pattern that facilitates greater precision of interpretation and decreased risk of
fanciful anthropomorphism.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to M. Dawkins, R. Dunbar, D. Johnson, and two anonymous
reviewers for comments on an earlier draft. We also thank Luigi Boitani and
Todd Fuller for their invitation to participate in the conference that spawned
this book and for their forbearance as editors.
Literature Cited
Albonetti, M. E., J. Lazarus, D. W. Dickins, A. Whybrow, R. Schonheiter, J. Prenter, R.
Elwood, J. D. Newman, F. O. Odberg, L. Kaiser, M. H. Pham-Delegue, V. Verguelen,
J. C. Fentress, and M. L. Bocia. 1992. Software multiple review. The Observer: Software for behavioural research, version 2.0. Ethology, Ecology and Evolution 4: 401–414.
Altmann, J. 1974. Observational study of behaviour: Sampling methods. Behaviour 49:
227–267.
Appleby, M. C. 1983. The probability of linearity in hierarchies. Animal Behaviour 32:
600–608.
Arnoldmeeks, C. and J. J. McGlone. 1986. Validating techniques to sample behavior of
confined, young-pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 16: 149–155.
Axelrod, R. 1984. The evolution of co-operation. New York: Basic Books.
Axelrod, R. and W. D. Hamilton. 1981. The evolution of cooperation. Science 211:
1390–1396.
Barbault, R. 1988. Body size, ecological constraints, and the evolution of life-history strategies. In M. K. Hecht, B. Wallace, and G. T. Prance, eds., Evolutionary biology, 261–285.
New York: Plenum.
Bekoff, M. 1977. Quantitative studies of three areas of classical ethology: Social dominance, behavioural taxonomy, and behavioural variability. In B. Hazlett, ed., Quantitative methods in the study of animal behavior, 1–46. New York: Academic Press.
Bekoff, M. and D. Jamieson. 1997. Ethics and the study of carnivores: Doing science while
respecting animals. In J. L. Gittleman, ed., Carnivore behavior, ecology and evolution,
vol. 2, 15–45. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Berdoy, M., P. Smith, and D. W. Macdonald. 1994. Stability of social status in wild rats:
Age and the role of settled dominance. Behaviour 132: 193–212.
Berger, J. and C. Cunningham. 1995. Predation, sensitivity and sex: Why female black rhinoceroses outlive males. Behavioural Ecology 6: 57–64.
Bernstein, I. S. 1991. An empirical comparison of focal and ad-libitum scoring with commentary on instantaneous scans, all occurrence and one-zero techniques. Animal
Behaviour 42: 721–728.