61
view derived from information from a class of similar projects to reduce inaccuracy
and bias. Even more important is accountability, both public-sector accountability
through transparency and public control and private-sector accountability via competition and market control (Flyvbjerg et al. 2003 ). Indeed, there is hope that widespread mismanagement of large-infrastructure projects is decreasing because
democratic governance is improving around the world.
However, many of the future mega-projects in the water sector are transboundary
projects that are planned or under construction in less democratic, economically
fragile and politically often unstable countries, governed by weak national and
international water management organisations. In these countries international disputes over water issues are more likely, as clearly shown for the Central Asian water
confl ict, particularly between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan over the Syrdarya water
resources (e.g. Bernauer and Siegfried 2012 ). Solutions for megaprojects under
these conditions may include the establishment of an outside international body for
management, coordinated water resource management across political and sectoral
borders, the application of a “reference-based forecasting” approach (see above),
involvement of all stakeholders through a participatory approach, accountability
and critical questioning. According to Flyvbjerg ( 2007 ), a key principal should be
that the costs of making wrong forecasts should fall on those making the forecast.
Several of the listed megaprojects are so-called “zombie projects” (Gleick et al.
2014 ) because they were once proposed, killed for one reason or another and brought
back to life, even if they are socially, politically, economically and environmentally
unjustifi ed. Indeed, they may resurrect when so-called “windows-of- opportunity”
open, mainly as a consequence of major disasters, such as nuclear disasters, severe
droughts, long-lasting water shortages, famines, etc. Many of these “zombie projects”
are technically feasible; however, the associated costs are immense and may cause
dramatic social, economic and environmental damages. In most cases, only the planning and construction costs are considered, and these costs are already systematically
underestimated. The follow-up costs need to be covered mostly by the general public
and may therefore harm the economy of entire countries.
A potential alternative concept is ecological engineering, which encompasses a
variety of approaches for working with nature. This approach is often cheaper and
more effective than hard engineering solutions at accomplishing specifi c goals and
may include the restoration of fl oodplains, coastal zones and upland areas. The
Mississippi Delta Repair Program, following hurricane Katarina, has been recently
approved by the U.S. federal government. It applies a restoration rather than a hard
engineering approach, and the benefi ts may be immense on the long-run considering the lower maintenance costs as well as the multiple services provided by the
restored delta ecosystems. Similar approaches have been successfully applied in the
lower Rhine River and the delta system in the Netherlands (e.g. providing more
room for rivers instead of always higher dikes), as well as in Australia (see above).
Many of the major future water infrastructure projects are planned in developing
countries and emerging economies, where low-tech efforts rather than expensive
engineering projects are required to meet the major challenges in the water sectors.
Smart water investments in both developing and developed countries may include
4 A Global View on Future Major Water Engineering Projects
view derived from information from a class of similar projects to reduce inaccuracy
and bias. Even more important is accountability, both public-sector accountability
through transparency and public control and private-sector accountability via competition and market control (Flyvbjerg et al. 2003 ). Indeed, there is hope that widespread mismanagement of large-infrastructure projects is decreasing because
democratic governance is improving around the world.
However, many of the future mega-projects in the water sector are transboundary
projects that are planned or under construction in less democratic, economically
fragile and politically often unstable countries, governed by weak national and
international water management organisations. In these countries international disputes over water issues are more likely, as clearly shown for the Central Asian water
confl ict, particularly between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan over the Syrdarya water
resources (e.g. Bernauer and Siegfried 2012 ). Solutions for megaprojects under
these conditions may include the establishment of an outside international body for
management, coordinated water resource management across political and sectoral
borders, the application of a “reference-based forecasting” approach (see above),
involvement of all stakeholders through a participatory approach, accountability
and critical questioning. According to Flyvbjerg ( 2007 ), a key principal should be
that the costs of making wrong forecasts should fall on those making the forecast.
Several of the listed megaprojects are so-called “zombie projects” (Gleick et al.
2014 ) because they were once proposed, killed for one reason or another and brought
back to life, even if they are socially, politically, economically and environmentally
unjustifi ed. Indeed, they may resurrect when so-called “windows-of- opportunity”
open, mainly as a consequence of major disasters, such as nuclear disasters, severe
droughts, long-lasting water shortages, famines, etc. Many of these “zombie projects”
are technically feasible; however, the associated costs are immense and may cause
dramatic social, economic and environmental damages. In most cases, only the planning and construction costs are considered, and these costs are already systematically
underestimated. The follow-up costs need to be covered mostly by the general public
and may therefore harm the economy of entire countries.
A potential alternative concept is ecological engineering, which encompasses a
variety of approaches for working with nature. This approach is often cheaper and
more effective than hard engineering solutions at accomplishing specifi c goals and
may include the restoration of fl oodplains, coastal zones and upland areas. The
Mississippi Delta Repair Program, following hurricane Katarina, has been recently
approved by the U.S. federal government. It applies a restoration rather than a hard
engineering approach, and the benefi ts may be immense on the long-run considering the lower maintenance costs as well as the multiple services provided by the
restored delta ecosystems. Similar approaches have been successfully applied in the
lower Rhine River and the delta system in the Netherlands (e.g. providing more
room for rivers instead of always higher dikes), as well as in Australia (see above).
Many of the major future water infrastructure projects are planned in developing
countries and emerging economies, where low-tech efforts rather than expensive
engineering projects are required to meet the major challenges in the water sectors.
Smart water investments in both developing and developed countries may include
4 A Global View on Future Major Water Engineering Projects