197
13.2.1 The Johnston Plan
In 1953, the United States sent a special envoy, Eric Johnston, to the region in order
to mediate an agreement on the Jordan River allocations, later called the Johnston
Plan. Though the parties never formally ratifi ed the plan, they have initially adhered
to it. According to the plan, 400 × 10
6 m
3 per year were allocated to Israel,
720 × 10
6 m
3 to Jordan and 132 × 10
6 m
3 to Syria (Phillips et al. 2007 ). But in the
1960s, the parties began to develop projects in excess of the Johnston allocations.
This could be considered as one of the reasons for the 1967 war, which gave Israel
control over two of the three Jordan headwaters: the entire Lower Jordan River and
the Mountain Aquifers in the West Bank (Wolf 2000 ). The latter are of strategic
importance for Israel’s provision with groundwater, as major springs in Israel are
alimented by those aquifers (Baumgarten 2010 ). Even though the Johnston Plan is
frequently cited as a basis for cooperation agreements between the concerned parties, it falls short in view of sustainable groundwater uses, environmental needs and
the impacts of population growth and climate change on the availability of water
resources (Mager 2015 ).
13.2.2 The Agreement Concerning the Utilisation
of the Yarmuk Waters
Jordan signed an agreement with Syria concerning the utilisation of the waters of
the Yarmuk River (Syrian Arab Rebublic and Jordan 1987 ). The agreement foresaw
the establishment of a joint Syria–Jordan Commission for the implementation of
the dam-building works at Maqarin. The dam at the Yarmuk River was fi nally
realised in 2011 with a storage capacity of 110 × 10
6 m
3 . So far the dam’s reservoir
remained unfi lled, as droughts and increased consumption in Syria have considerably reduced the annual fl ow of the Yarmuk River. Since the agreement was signed
in 1987, more than 30 dams and more than 300 wells have been erected (UN-ESCWA
and BGR 2013 ).
13.2.3 The Peace Treaty Between Israel and Jordan
Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty in 1994 (Jordan-Israel Peace Treaty 1994 ).
The peace treaty refers implicitly to the three main principles of international customary water law (rule of equitable and reasonable utilisation, the no-harm rule and
the duty to cooperate), but adapts them to the special political situation. The water
issues between the two states are settled in Article 6 and in Annex II of the treaty.
The parties agree on the allocations of the shared water resources from Yarmuk and
Jordan: In the summer season, Israel receives 12 × 10
6 m
3 from the Yarmuk River,
13 Water Resources, Cooperation and Power Asymmetries in the Water Management…
13.2.1 The Johnston Plan
In 1953, the United States sent a special envoy, Eric Johnston, to the region in order
to mediate an agreement on the Jordan River allocations, later called the Johnston
Plan. Though the parties never formally ratifi ed the plan, they have initially adhered
to it. According to the plan, 400 × 10
6 m
3 per year were allocated to Israel,
720 × 10
6 m
3 to Jordan and 132 × 10
6 m
3 to Syria (Phillips et al. 2007 ). But in the
1960s, the parties began to develop projects in excess of the Johnston allocations.
This could be considered as one of the reasons for the 1967 war, which gave Israel
control over two of the three Jordan headwaters: the entire Lower Jordan River and
the Mountain Aquifers in the West Bank (Wolf 2000 ). The latter are of strategic
importance for Israel’s provision with groundwater, as major springs in Israel are
alimented by those aquifers (Baumgarten 2010 ). Even though the Johnston Plan is
frequently cited as a basis for cooperation agreements between the concerned parties, it falls short in view of sustainable groundwater uses, environmental needs and
the impacts of population growth and climate change on the availability of water
resources (Mager 2015 ).
13.2.2 The Agreement Concerning the Utilisation
of the Yarmuk Waters
Jordan signed an agreement with Syria concerning the utilisation of the waters of
the Yarmuk River (Syrian Arab Rebublic and Jordan 1987 ). The agreement foresaw
the establishment of a joint Syria–Jordan Commission for the implementation of
the dam-building works at Maqarin. The dam at the Yarmuk River was fi nally
realised in 2011 with a storage capacity of 110 × 10
6 m
3 . So far the dam’s reservoir
remained unfi lled, as droughts and increased consumption in Syria have considerably reduced the annual fl ow of the Yarmuk River. Since the agreement was signed
in 1987, more than 30 dams and more than 300 wells have been erected (UN-ESCWA
and BGR 2013 ).
13.2.3 The Peace Treaty Between Israel and Jordan
Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty in 1994 (Jordan-Israel Peace Treaty 1994 ).
The peace treaty refers implicitly to the three main principles of international customary water law (rule of equitable and reasonable utilisation, the no-harm rule and
the duty to cooperate), but adapts them to the special political situation. The water
issues between the two states are settled in Article 6 and in Annex II of the treaty.
The parties agree on the allocations of the shared water resources from Yarmuk and
Jordan: In the summer season, Israel receives 12 × 10
6 m
3 from the Yarmuk River,
13 Water Resources, Cooperation and Power Asymmetries in the Water Management…