species by controlling pressures which change environmental quality. Thus,
indicators should allow for monitoring the efficiency of measures applied to mitigate
pressures on habitats. Therefore, we concentrate on indicators that, being relatively
simple, reflect collective response of target habitats, and respond in an integrative
way to environmental stresses (relevant and efficient), providing an overall ecosystem performance which can further be used as reference for predicting habitat
sensitivity to climate changes. It is important to note that notwithstanding the fact
that the extant typologies divide ecological indicators referring to such criteria as
assessment methods and spatial scales at which they are applied (global, landscape,
local, site), the indicators on various levels are complementary in evaluation and
prediction of habitat changes and should be considered jointly in order to provide
effective help to the managers in protected areas (EEA 2012).
6.3 Indicators for Monitoring Climate Change
at Landscape and Habitat Levels Focusing
on Wetlands in Biebrza National Park
The Biebrza National Park (BNP) embraces about 60,000 hectares of wetlands on
peat soils in the Biebrza Valley. The distribution of local wetland habitats reflects
both site hydrology and management intensity showing typical zonation of the river
valley (Os ´wit 1991). In the BNP there prevails mainly extensive agricultural management, but socio-economic changes over the last three decades resulted in partial
depopulation of the countryside and abandonment of traditional agricultural practices. This initiated forest succession and led to disappearance of semi-natural
landscapes and habitats of many species as is the case with abandoned meadows
in BNP. The indicators of effects of these driving forces include changes in land use
pattern, landscape patchiness and richness of landscape elements which may be
traced with indices based on analysis of land coverage. It is generally acknowledged
that climate-induced alterations in landscapes may best be evaluated by structural
analysis including the assessment of land use pattern, complexity, shifts in ecosystem boundaries and their fragmentation (Watts and Handley 2010). The indicators at
landscape level suggested and partially tested in the BNP are given in Table 6.1.
As mentioned above, schemes of land cover-based indicators rely on visual scales
using various data sources including remote sensing, aerial and landscape photographs (EEA 2006; Ode et al. 2010b). Visual scales allow for the determination of
such features of landscape visual structure as land use pattern, complexity, disturbance and naturalness. Complexity refers to the diversity and richness of landscape
elements and features and the interspersion of patterns in the landscape using e.g. LDI
and EMS indices (Ode et al. 2010b). The quality of data obtained in visual analysis
varies depending on image resolution, period when it was taken and accurateness of
its interpretation. In the Biebrza National Park, the assessment of richness of landscape elements (complexity), i.e. the presence of patches of forest and shrubs,
80
J. Sienkiewicz et al.
indicators should allow for monitoring the efficiency of measures applied to mitigate
pressures on habitats. Therefore, we concentrate on indicators that, being relatively
simple, reflect collective response of target habitats, and respond in an integrative
way to environmental stresses (relevant and efficient), providing an overall ecosystem performance which can further be used as reference for predicting habitat
sensitivity to climate changes. It is important to note that notwithstanding the fact
that the extant typologies divide ecological indicators referring to such criteria as
assessment methods and spatial scales at which they are applied (global, landscape,
local, site), the indicators on various levels are complementary in evaluation and
prediction of habitat changes and should be considered jointly in order to provide
effective help to the managers in protected areas (EEA 2012).
6.3 Indicators for Monitoring Climate Change
at Landscape and Habitat Levels Focusing
on Wetlands in Biebrza National Park
The Biebrza National Park (BNP) embraces about 60,000 hectares of wetlands on
peat soils in the Biebrza Valley. The distribution of local wetland habitats reflects
both site hydrology and management intensity showing typical zonation of the river
valley (Os ´wit 1991). In the BNP there prevails mainly extensive agricultural management, but socio-economic changes over the last three decades resulted in partial
depopulation of the countryside and abandonment of traditional agricultural practices. This initiated forest succession and led to disappearance of semi-natural
landscapes and habitats of many species as is the case with abandoned meadows
in BNP. The indicators of effects of these driving forces include changes in land use
pattern, landscape patchiness and richness of landscape elements which may be
traced with indices based on analysis of land coverage. It is generally acknowledged
that climate-induced alterations in landscapes may best be evaluated by structural
analysis including the assessment of land use pattern, complexity, shifts in ecosystem boundaries and their fragmentation (Watts and Handley 2010). The indicators at
landscape level suggested and partially tested in the BNP are given in Table 6.1.
As mentioned above, schemes of land cover-based indicators rely on visual scales
using various data sources including remote sensing, aerial and landscape photographs (EEA 2006; Ode et al. 2010b). Visual scales allow for the determination of
such features of landscape visual structure as land use pattern, complexity, disturbance and naturalness. Complexity refers to the diversity and richness of landscape
elements and features and the interspersion of patterns in the landscape using e.g. LDI
and EMS indices (Ode et al. 2010b). The quality of data obtained in visual analysis
varies depending on image resolution, period when it was taken and accurateness of
its interpretation. In the Biebrza National Park, the assessment of richness of landscape elements (complexity), i.e. the presence of patches of forest and shrubs,
80
J. Sienkiewicz et al.