poverty reduction (Vosti and Reardon 1997; Zeller et al. 2010). Most countries in
Southeast Asia over the last two decades, and in particular Thailand and Vietnam,
have achieved significant economic development and poverty reduction, but have
also experienced losses of forest cover and biodiversity, as well as the degradation
of soils. The expansion of arable land into steep hillside areas has led to serious soil
erosion, as can be seen in the north-western uplands of Vietnam and Thailand,
where soil erosion is caused by intensive land use (Clemens et al. 2010; Ha ¨ring
et al. 2010; Heidhues et al. 2007; Lippe et al. 2011; Panomtaranichagul and
Herrmann 2007). Biodiversity is severely threatened by both smallholder agriculture and large-scale plantations, usually in areas where rural poverty is widespread
(Tonneijck et al. 2006); therefore, resource conservation, economic development
and poverty reduction need to be addressed simultaneously (Adams et al. 2004).
Kaimowitz and Angelsen (1998) describe two explanatory approaches regarding
the effects of improved technology on deforestation and agricultural land expansion, and each leads to quite different policy conclusions. As reviewed by Maertens
et al. (2006), the ‘population approach’ is based on subsistence models, and
identifies poverty and population growth, and factors linked to local conditions of
lacking market access and low levels of technology, as the main drivers of agricultural expansion into upland and forest areas. Productivity levels in these areas
remain low, and environmental degradation is caused by a growing poor population. Given these underlying causes, investment in human capital and technological
progress through research and appropriate pro-poor technologies should result in
higher agricultural productivity, and thus induce farmers to cultivate less land to
meet subsistence needs, extracting fewer natural resources. The ‘market-based
approach’ (Kaimowitz and Angelsen 1998), on the other hand, considers access
to markets, institutions and technology that enhances the profitability of agriculture
as the main driver for agricultural expansion. While agricultural productivity is
increased and poverty rates are falling, environmental degradation may increase.
Given these underlying causes in the market-based approach, policies related to
human capital, infrastructure, access to markets and institutions, must be coupled
with policies that protect the environment and provide payments for environmental
services (Ahlheim and Neef 2006; Chap. 8). In the upland areas of Thailand and
Vietnam, as elsewhere, government policy has indeed followed a market-based
approach, one that seeks to couple agricultural and economic development while at
the same time protecting forest areas using a command-and-control approach.
However, sometimes policies contradict each other. For example, in Thailand, the
government has encouraged hill-tribe farmers to undertake subsistence agriculture
and not intensify or expand their production activities (see Tipraqsa and
Schreinemachers 2009); however, top-down state-driven strategies have
dominated, and Neef et al. (2003) provided evidence, in northern Thailand, of the
failure of the Thai state paradigm in relation to the management of natural
resources. According to Zeller et al. (2010), these two approaches; however, do
not adequately capture the governance issues linked to large-scale logging by
national and multi-national firms, which has often been followed by the expansion
of plantations, such as oil palm in Indonesia and rubber plantations in Laos. A third
178
C. Saint-Macary et al.
Southeast Asia over the last two decades, and in particular Thailand and Vietnam,
have achieved significant economic development and poverty reduction, but have
also experienced losses of forest cover and biodiversity, as well as the degradation
of soils. The expansion of arable land into steep hillside areas has led to serious soil
erosion, as can be seen in the north-western uplands of Vietnam and Thailand,
where soil erosion is caused by intensive land use (Clemens et al. 2010; Ha ¨ring
et al. 2010; Heidhues et al. 2007; Lippe et al. 2011; Panomtaranichagul and
Herrmann 2007). Biodiversity is severely threatened by both smallholder agriculture and large-scale plantations, usually in areas where rural poverty is widespread
(Tonneijck et al. 2006); therefore, resource conservation, economic development
and poverty reduction need to be addressed simultaneously (Adams et al. 2004).
Kaimowitz and Angelsen (1998) describe two explanatory approaches regarding
the effects of improved technology on deforestation and agricultural land expansion, and each leads to quite different policy conclusions. As reviewed by Maertens
et al. (2006), the ‘population approach’ is based on subsistence models, and
identifies poverty and population growth, and factors linked to local conditions of
lacking market access and low levels of technology, as the main drivers of agricultural expansion into upland and forest areas. Productivity levels in these areas
remain low, and environmental degradation is caused by a growing poor population. Given these underlying causes, investment in human capital and technological
progress through research and appropriate pro-poor technologies should result in
higher agricultural productivity, and thus induce farmers to cultivate less land to
meet subsistence needs, extracting fewer natural resources. The ‘market-based
approach’ (Kaimowitz and Angelsen 1998), on the other hand, considers access
to markets, institutions and technology that enhances the profitability of agriculture
as the main driver for agricultural expansion. While agricultural productivity is
increased and poverty rates are falling, environmental degradation may increase.
Given these underlying causes in the market-based approach, policies related to
human capital, infrastructure, access to markets and institutions, must be coupled
with policies that protect the environment and provide payments for environmental
services (Ahlheim and Neef 2006; Chap. 8). In the upland areas of Thailand and
Vietnam, as elsewhere, government policy has indeed followed a market-based
approach, one that seeks to couple agricultural and economic development while at
the same time protecting forest areas using a command-and-control approach.
However, sometimes policies contradict each other. For example, in Thailand, the
government has encouraged hill-tribe farmers to undertake subsistence agriculture
and not intensify or expand their production activities (see Tipraqsa and
Schreinemachers 2009); however, top-down state-driven strategies have
dominated, and Neef et al. (2003) provided evidence, in northern Thailand, of the
failure of the Thai state paradigm in relation to the management of natural
resources. According to Zeller et al. (2010), these two approaches; however, do
not adequately capture the governance issues linked to large-scale logging by
national and multi-national firms, which has often been followed by the expansion
of plantations, such as oil palm in Indonesia and rubber plantations in Laos. A third
178
C. Saint-Macary et al.