193
Temple orientations were subsequently converted to (astronomical) declinations
(the angular distance between a celestial object and the celestial equator, an exact
point in the celestial sphere (or horizon)), in order to allow for direct comparison
with the rising and setting points of stars.
6
3 Analysis
The data presented here comprise 131 orientations of Doric and Ionic temples,
belonging to some 121 temples. The discrepancy between the number of surveyed
structures and the actual orientations is due to the side entrances featured in a number of temples. In some cases as many as three entrances are present in one structure
(e.g. Telesterion in Eleusis). Table 1 lists the temples included in the dataset, indicating also the side entrance measurements where appropriate. The collected orientations were divided to two groups: Doric and Ionic. A number of temples employing
more than one order are included in the data set. These are located in mainland
Greece. For instance, the Parthenon combines two orders: Doric exterior with Ionic
interior. Three temples located in extra-urban sanctuaries in the Peloponnese employ
all three architectural orders: the temple of Apollo at Bassae; the temple of Zeus in
Nemea (Doric exterior with a Corinthian interior topped by a second story in Ionic
order); and the temple of Athena Alea in Tegea (Doric exterior with a Corinthian
interior topped by an upper Ionic story). The Bassae and Tegea temples are situated
in Arkadia and both have a main and a side entrance. The temple at Bassae has a
northern main orientation with an eastern side entrance and that in Tegea an eastern
main orientation with a north side entrance. It is possible that these features were the
result of local tradition and preference, paired with a very talented architect (Jost,
1985: 94–95). Similarly, the Classical temple of Zeus at Nemea employs all three
architectural orders, but has the same orientation as its Doric Archaic predecessor,
indicating once more that this architectural pluralism was the result of fashion, preference and intention to impact on spatial perception. It is noteworthy though, that all
temples combining multiple architectural orders have a Doric exterior. For these
reasons, these three temples and the Parthenon have been included in the Doric
temple sample, as the order employed in a temple’s exterior is considered the dominant order. The Doric sample is almost three times as large as the Ionic.
Figures 1 and 2 show that the data are divided in three data clusters: an east/west
in the centre, a southern (from ca. –35° to −55°) and a northern (from ca. +34° to
+65°). These match the clusters detected in a larger sample of 237 temple orientations, which combines all architectural orders and religious structures with forms
6 Declinations have been calculated using the software GETDEC created by Clive Ruggles.
GETDEC is purpose-designed for use by archaeoastronomers in that it adjusts its astronomical
computations to account for empirical experience with refraction and other kinds of real-world
atmospheric conditions to which naked-eye observations of sunrise and sunset phenomena are
actually subject.
An Investigation of the Role of Architectural Orders in Greek Temple Orientation
Temple orientations were subsequently converted to (astronomical) declinations
(the angular distance between a celestial object and the celestial equator, an exact
point in the celestial sphere (or horizon)), in order to allow for direct comparison
with the rising and setting points of stars.
6
3 Analysis
The data presented here comprise 131 orientations of Doric and Ionic temples,
belonging to some 121 temples. The discrepancy between the number of surveyed
structures and the actual orientations is due to the side entrances featured in a number of temples. In some cases as many as three entrances are present in one structure
(e.g. Telesterion in Eleusis). Table 1 lists the temples included in the dataset, indicating also the side entrance measurements where appropriate. The collected orientations were divided to two groups: Doric and Ionic. A number of temples employing
more than one order are included in the data set. These are located in mainland
Greece. For instance, the Parthenon combines two orders: Doric exterior with Ionic
interior. Three temples located in extra-urban sanctuaries in the Peloponnese employ
all three architectural orders: the temple of Apollo at Bassae; the temple of Zeus in
Nemea (Doric exterior with a Corinthian interior topped by a second story in Ionic
order); and the temple of Athena Alea in Tegea (Doric exterior with a Corinthian
interior topped by an upper Ionic story). The Bassae and Tegea temples are situated
in Arkadia and both have a main and a side entrance. The temple at Bassae has a
northern main orientation with an eastern side entrance and that in Tegea an eastern
main orientation with a north side entrance. It is possible that these features were the
result of local tradition and preference, paired with a very talented architect (Jost,
1985: 94–95). Similarly, the Classical temple of Zeus at Nemea employs all three
architectural orders, but has the same orientation as its Doric Archaic predecessor,
indicating once more that this architectural pluralism was the result of fashion, preference and intention to impact on spatial perception. It is noteworthy though, that all
temples combining multiple architectural orders have a Doric exterior. For these
reasons, these three temples and the Parthenon have been included in the Doric
temple sample, as the order employed in a temple’s exterior is considered the dominant order. The Doric sample is almost three times as large as the Ionic.
Figures 1 and 2 show that the data are divided in three data clusters: an east/west
in the centre, a southern (from ca. –35° to −55°) and a northern (from ca. +34° to
+65°). These match the clusters detected in a larger sample of 237 temple orientations, which combines all architectural orders and religious structures with forms
6 Declinations have been calculated using the software GETDEC created by Clive Ruggles.
GETDEC is purpose-designed for use by archaeoastronomers in that it adjusts its astronomical
computations to account for empirical experience with refraction and other kinds of real-world
atmospheric conditions to which naked-eye observations of sunrise and sunset phenomena are
actually subject.
An Investigation of the Role of Architectural Orders in Greek Temple Orientation