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needs above human needs (while not ignoring humans) is termed as ecocentrism.
Lastly, technocentrists view humans as masters of nature and believe that nature
needs to be preserved through modern technology and purposeful effort (Bailey and
Wilson 2009; Papert 1988; O’Riordan 1981). While technocentrism might seem a
promising worldview for the modern individual, there is no clear consensus whether
being more ecocentric or technocentric would lead to better environmental outcomes, and in some cases, the line between these two can become blurred. All of the
aforementioned views are reflected in contemporary measures that are used to
assess values relevant to pro-environmental behaviour and Environmental
Citizenship (Nordlund and Garvill 2002, 2003).
To date, there is no single study that can lend an insight into how value orientations relate to all the components of Environmental Citizenship. However, there are
many studies on how values relate to a very important component of Environmental
Citizenship – pro-environmental behaviours (Steg et al. 2014a, b; Thøgersen and
Ölander 2002). While, at first, researchers explored the possibility of all values proposed by Schwartz to be related to pro-environmental actions (e.g. Schultz and
Zelezny 1998; Karp 1996), later studies settled on four value orientations, namely,
hedonistic, egoistic, altruistic and biospheric values (Steg et al. 2011; Nordlund and
Garvill 2002; Stern et al. 1999; etc.). These values seem to have the most practical
significance and make the most theoretical sense.
Hedonistic values are usually negatively related to pro-environmental actions,
since they are often in direct conflict with environmental outcomes (Steg and De
Groot 2012). For example, a strongly hedonic individual will tend to sacrifice the
environment for their own pleasure, since environmental goals are not at the forefront of their behavioural decisions. Despite that, it is possible to align hedonic
values to lead to environmentally friendly outcomes, for example, by providing
pleasurable incentives for them; however, these types of solutions would be in conflict with the idea of Environmental Citizenship, since it assumes an intrinsically
pro-environmental value basis. Egoistic values, just as hedonic values, are usually
negatively related with pro-environmental actions (Steg and De Groot 2012).
However, there might be situations where egoistic motives lead to seemingly altruistic actions if they produce a desirable outcome to the individual (Dawkins 2006),
because egoistic values drive individuals towards self-serving strategies of increasing individual fitness and maximising one’s resources, often at the expense of others
or at least without regard for them.
Altruistic values drive behaviours that lead to self-transcending outcomes that,
although lead to a loss of individual resources, do not necessarily lead to a loss of
comparative fitness. Altruistic values are usually related to all socially desirable
behaviours and therefore to pro-environmental behaviours as well (Steg and De
Groot 2012). However, altruistic values are not the best predictor of proenvironmental actions, since altruism is a general strategy that might encompass
actions that lead more to an increased feeling of well-being for other individuals,
but not necessarily to the environment. In simpler terms, altruism is more people
oriented than environment oriented.
6 Values, Beliefs and Environmental Citizenship
needs above human needs (while not ignoring humans) is termed as ecocentrism.
Lastly, technocentrists view humans as masters of nature and believe that nature
needs to be preserved through modern technology and purposeful effort (Bailey and
Wilson 2009; Papert 1988; O’Riordan 1981). While technocentrism might seem a
promising worldview for the modern individual, there is no clear consensus whether
being more ecocentric or technocentric would lead to better environmental outcomes, and in some cases, the line between these two can become blurred. All of the
aforementioned views are reflected in contemporary measures that are used to
assess values relevant to pro-environmental behaviour and Environmental
Citizenship (Nordlund and Garvill 2002, 2003).
To date, there is no single study that can lend an insight into how value orientations relate to all the components of Environmental Citizenship. However, there are
many studies on how values relate to a very important component of Environmental
Citizenship – pro-environmental behaviours (Steg et al. 2014a, b; Thøgersen and
Ölander 2002). While, at first, researchers explored the possibility of all values proposed by Schwartz to be related to pro-environmental actions (e.g. Schultz and
Zelezny 1998; Karp 1996), later studies settled on four value orientations, namely,
hedonistic, egoistic, altruistic and biospheric values (Steg et al. 2011; Nordlund and
Garvill 2002; Stern et al. 1999; etc.). These values seem to have the most practical
significance and make the most theoretical sense.
Hedonistic values are usually negatively related to pro-environmental actions,
since they are often in direct conflict with environmental outcomes (Steg and De
Groot 2012). For example, a strongly hedonic individual will tend to sacrifice the
environment for their own pleasure, since environmental goals are not at the forefront of their behavioural decisions. Despite that, it is possible to align hedonic
values to lead to environmentally friendly outcomes, for example, by providing
pleasurable incentives for them; however, these types of solutions would be in conflict with the idea of Environmental Citizenship, since it assumes an intrinsically
pro-environmental value basis. Egoistic values, just as hedonic values, are usually
negatively related with pro-environmental actions (Steg and De Groot 2012).
However, there might be situations where egoistic motives lead to seemingly altruistic actions if they produce a desirable outcome to the individual (Dawkins 2006),
because egoistic values drive individuals towards self-serving strategies of increasing individual fitness and maximising one’s resources, often at the expense of others
or at least without regard for them.
Altruistic values drive behaviours that lead to self-transcending outcomes that,
although lead to a loss of individual resources, do not necessarily lead to a loss of
comparative fitness. Altruistic values are usually related to all socially desirable
behaviours and therefore to pro-environmental behaviours as well (Steg and De
Groot 2012). However, altruistic values are not the best predictor of proenvironmental actions, since altruism is a general strategy that might encompass
actions that lead more to an increased feeling of well-being for other individuals,
but not necessarily to the environment. In simpler terms, altruism is more people
oriented than environment oriented.
6 Values, Beliefs and Environmental Citizenship