53
reflected through its environmental, societal, and economic impacts. These three
impacts are integral and have to be analysed together.
The main aim of sustainable transportation is to promote better and healthier
ways of meeting and satisfying people’s needs and functions by reducing the social,
economic, and environmental impacts of their mobility modes. Sustainable transportation tries to achieve these aims by reducing resource inputs and waste outputs
and minimising the effects of transportation on the public realm (Schiller et al.
2010). Given that transportation is one of the primary human activities, it could be
concluded that sustainable transportation promotes easier access to basic life functions (e.g. work, education, shopping, leisure) and the use of healthier and economically more cost-effective modes of travelling (e.g. walking, cycling, public transport)
that affect both the individual and the environment by reducing pollution and traffic
density.
The interrelationship between transportation and Environmental Citizenship can
be noticed when transportation and environmental issues are discussed. It is necessary to emphasise that the impact of transportation on the environment is significant.
Transportation is one of the most abundant energy and petroleum consumers.
Transportation is the fastest-growing contributor to air pollution through carbon
dioxide emissions, thus becoming a significant contributor to global warming.
Transportation also generates pollution through nitrous oxides, carbon monoxide,
and particulate matter (Ionescu 2017).
The significance of transportation is noticeable through its responsibility for
around a quarter of EU greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, it is the second biggest greenhouse gas-emitting sector after energy generation (Stroe et al. 2017).
Transportation is responsible for 19% of the world’s energy consumption and 23%
of carbon dioxide emission production (Chu 2012). In the EU, the transportation
sector is responsible for a large share of greenhouse gas emissions, i.e. it contributes
27% of the total EU-28 greenhouse gas emissions (including aviation and shipping)
(EEA 2018) and for 33% of all energy consumption (EEA 2008). In the United
States, ground transportation consumes almost 30% of the primary energy and is
responsible for 27% of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Gosse and Clarens
2017). In California, car transportation is responsible for 38% of GHG emissions,
and other pollutants have been linked to significant health impacts (Chester et al.
2017). Bongardt et al. (2013) have stressed how important the road transportation is
globally, which has a share of 69% of all carbon dioxide emission related to transportation in general. However, other modes are also significant contributors; (inter)
national shipping contributes with 14% to carbon dioxide emission, aviation with
10%, rail transportation with 2%, and other modes with 5%.
An additional problem is the pronounced dependence on car transportation.
Nowadays, 1.2 billion vehicles are on the road (Sperling 2017). It could be emphasised that transportation (especially the dependence on car transportation) and urban
land use lead to environmental, economic, and social problems for the sustainability
of cities (Schiller et al. 2010).
In addition to environmental pollution regarding GHG emissions, the significant
impact of transportation is noise pollution. An additional problem is land use since
4 Societal Issues and Environmental Citizenship
reflected through its environmental, societal, and economic impacts. These three
impacts are integral and have to be analysed together.
The main aim of sustainable transportation is to promote better and healthier
ways of meeting and satisfying people’s needs and functions by reducing the social,
economic, and environmental impacts of their mobility modes. Sustainable transportation tries to achieve these aims by reducing resource inputs and waste outputs
and minimising the effects of transportation on the public realm (Schiller et al.
2010). Given that transportation is one of the primary human activities, it could be
concluded that sustainable transportation promotes easier access to basic life functions (e.g. work, education, shopping, leisure) and the use of healthier and economically more cost-effective modes of travelling (e.g. walking, cycling, public transport)
that affect both the individual and the environment by reducing pollution and traffic
density.
The interrelationship between transportation and Environmental Citizenship can
be noticed when transportation and environmental issues are discussed. It is necessary to emphasise that the impact of transportation on the environment is significant.
Transportation is one of the most abundant energy and petroleum consumers.
Transportation is the fastest-growing contributor to air pollution through carbon
dioxide emissions, thus becoming a significant contributor to global warming.
Transportation also generates pollution through nitrous oxides, carbon monoxide,
and particulate matter (Ionescu 2017).
The significance of transportation is noticeable through its responsibility for
around a quarter of EU greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, it is the second biggest greenhouse gas-emitting sector after energy generation (Stroe et al. 2017).
Transportation is responsible for 19% of the world’s energy consumption and 23%
of carbon dioxide emission production (Chu 2012). In the EU, the transportation
sector is responsible for a large share of greenhouse gas emissions, i.e. it contributes
27% of the total EU-28 greenhouse gas emissions (including aviation and shipping)
(EEA 2018) and for 33% of all energy consumption (EEA 2008). In the United
States, ground transportation consumes almost 30% of the primary energy and is
responsible for 27% of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Gosse and Clarens
2017). In California, car transportation is responsible for 38% of GHG emissions,
and other pollutants have been linked to significant health impacts (Chester et al.
2017). Bongardt et al. (2013) have stressed how important the road transportation is
globally, which has a share of 69% of all carbon dioxide emission related to transportation in general. However, other modes are also significant contributors; (inter)
national shipping contributes with 14% to carbon dioxide emission, aviation with
10%, rail transportation with 2%, and other modes with 5%.
An additional problem is the pronounced dependence on car transportation.
Nowadays, 1.2 billion vehicles are on the road (Sperling 2017). It could be emphasised that transportation (especially the dependence on car transportation) and urban
land use lead to environmental, economic, and social problems for the sustainability
of cities (Schiller et al. 2010).
In addition to environmental pollution regarding GHG emissions, the significant
impact of transportation is noise pollution. An additional problem is land use since
4 Societal Issues and Environmental Citizenship