36
Garrett Hardin is well-known for his concept as introduced in Tragedy of
Commons (1968). He explains the overconsumption of resources on the specific
example of common pasture land and behaviour of herdsmen. One herdsman considers the overgrazing of one animal on the common pasture of little consequence,
since the overgrazing will be shared by all the herdsmen, thus minimising any
impact. In this way, all the herdsmen will add additional animals to the common
rationally considering the negative impact as minor compared to the positive effect
he gains. Hardin (1968) states: ‘Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a
system that compels him to increase his herd without limit – in the world that is
limited. Ruin is the destination towards which all men rush, each pursuing his own
best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons. Freedom in
commons brings ruin to all’.
A change of behaviour is probably the most critical issue to overcome in recent
global trends. Stewart Barr (2008) calls for ‘critical approach to the links between
sustainability, policy and citizen engagement and argues that sustainability policy
needs to undergo a major conceptual shift, moving away from a negative approach
to behaviour change towards a positive perspective, utilising the well-known techniques of segmentation and social marketing’. Marked as the ‘mainstreaming’ of
sustainable lifestyles, Barr considers it an ‘effective means of engaging most citizens in the environmental debate, given the major influence of the consumer society
on individual aspiration and belief’. He emphasises ‘the importance of bottom-up
approaches to resolving environmental dilemmas, while politically, there has been
recognition that individual citizens hold the key to meeting critical environmental
targets through changes in their life-styles’ (Barr 2008).
Cao (2017) deals with the neoliberalisation of Environmental Citizenship and
explores the idea that economic rationality reduces Environmental Citizenship to
the act of sustainable consumption. This recasts green citizenship as green consumerism. He examines three pedagogical instruments used to promote Environmental
Citizenship: government campaigns, ecological footprint calculators and media
text. He reveals in what way they ‘enable the governing of environment through citizens (as consumers) and making neoliberal green citizens both subject and agents
of neoliberal environmentality’.
‘Environmental governmentality’ has been defined by Darier (1996) as a form of
governing the environment which involves ‘the use of social-engineering techniques
to get attention of the population to focus on specific environmental issues and to
instil – in a subtle, coercive manner – the new environmental conduct’. It is argued
that the adoption of such techniques comes from the neoliberal mentality with its
aversion to government regulation. Cao (2017) further criticises neoliberal citizenship for giving the rights and duties to its new members, corporations. He argues
that traditionally, corporations, as economic entities, have enjoyed commercial
rights. In the United States at least, they have recently been able to claim and exercise civil and political rights (the right of free speech and the right to participate in
political campaigns).
The impact of neoliberalism is perceived here as redefinition of the traditional
citizen. Neoliberal theorists shift the focus from the citizen to the consumer and
V. Kaputa et al.
Garrett Hardin is well-known for his concept as introduced in Tragedy of
Commons (1968). He explains the overconsumption of resources on the specific
example of common pasture land and behaviour of herdsmen. One herdsman considers the overgrazing of one animal on the common pasture of little consequence,
since the overgrazing will be shared by all the herdsmen, thus minimising any
impact. In this way, all the herdsmen will add additional animals to the common
rationally considering the negative impact as minor compared to the positive effect
he gains. Hardin (1968) states: ‘Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a
system that compels him to increase his herd without limit – in the world that is
limited. Ruin is the destination towards which all men rush, each pursuing his own
best interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons. Freedom in
commons brings ruin to all’.
A change of behaviour is probably the most critical issue to overcome in recent
global trends. Stewart Barr (2008) calls for ‘critical approach to the links between
sustainability, policy and citizen engagement and argues that sustainability policy
needs to undergo a major conceptual shift, moving away from a negative approach
to behaviour change towards a positive perspective, utilising the well-known techniques of segmentation and social marketing’. Marked as the ‘mainstreaming’ of
sustainable lifestyles, Barr considers it an ‘effective means of engaging most citizens in the environmental debate, given the major influence of the consumer society
on individual aspiration and belief’. He emphasises ‘the importance of bottom-up
approaches to resolving environmental dilemmas, while politically, there has been
recognition that individual citizens hold the key to meeting critical environmental
targets through changes in their life-styles’ (Barr 2008).
Cao (2017) deals with the neoliberalisation of Environmental Citizenship and
explores the idea that economic rationality reduces Environmental Citizenship to
the act of sustainable consumption. This recasts green citizenship as green consumerism. He examines three pedagogical instruments used to promote Environmental
Citizenship: government campaigns, ecological footprint calculators and media
text. He reveals in what way they ‘enable the governing of environment through citizens (as consumers) and making neoliberal green citizens both subject and agents
of neoliberal environmentality’.
‘Environmental governmentality’ has been defined by Darier (1996) as a form of
governing the environment which involves ‘the use of social-engineering techniques
to get attention of the population to focus on specific environmental issues and to
instil – in a subtle, coercive manner – the new environmental conduct’. It is argued
that the adoption of such techniques comes from the neoliberal mentality with its
aversion to government regulation. Cao (2017) further criticises neoliberal citizenship for giving the rights and duties to its new members, corporations. He argues
that traditionally, corporations, as economic entities, have enjoyed commercial
rights. In the United States at least, they have recently been able to claim and exercise civil and political rights (the right of free speech and the right to participate in
political campaigns).
The impact of neoliberalism is perceived here as redefinition of the traditional
citizen. Neoliberal theorists shift the focus from the citizen to the consumer and
V. Kaputa et al.