105
(2006) found that time spent outdoors was associated with the development of positive values about nature (see also Evans et al. 2018).
7.7.2 Retrospective Studies
We analysed studies focused on adults that asked them about their nature contact
during childhood. Wells and Lekies (2006) surveyed 2000 adults aged 18–90 years
in the United States and asked them about their experiences in nature before the age
of 11. Activities in wild nature (e.g. hunting, camping) and in domestic nature (e.g.
gardening) were related to EA and EB. The more nature experiences people
reported, the more likely it was that they had a positive attitude towards nature and
the environment, which could further influence pro-environmental behaviour.
Interestingly, the study revealed that frequency of exposure to nature had both a
direct effect on EB and an indirect one, mediated by EA.
The findings of retrospective studies lead to the hypothesis that significant life
experiences during childhood could be relevant for adults’ career decisions. In
review articles and studies with environmentalists in Norway and the United States
(Chawla 1999, 2007), the role of the time spent outdoors, the positive experiences
in natural environments, the family values and role models (e.g. family members)
were all found to be important for the career choices. Attari et al. (2009) analysed
three different methods of reaching energy-related behaviour: (1) voluntary actions
vs. regulations, (2) the reason for the restrictions: environmental or national security
and (3) sociodemographic characteristics. They conducted a non-representative survey among US citizens about what tools would encourage them to change from a
SUV to a smaller car and asked them to reason their choice.
Their results show that participants preferred either voluntary actions or soft
regulations over hard regulations to reach the more environmentally friendly behaviour but had no significant preference between voluntary actions and soft regulations. It also turned out that the framing of the problems had no significant effect on
the participants’ openness towards voluntary actions or regulations. Environmental
attitudes (measured by the NEP Scale) had a strong positive relationship with support for regulatory strategies intended to change the behaviours in question. They
also found a gender effect as women were more likely to support voluntary actions.
The loss of personal freedom was frequently mentioned as a reason for saying no to
hard regulations (Attari et al. 2009:1).
7.8 How Can Attitudes Be Changed?
Quite a lot of research analysed what influences behavioural change, as we have
shown above. Some authors, for example, Dobson (2007), argue that long-lasting
behavioural change can be reached by attitude change, but the core of it would be
7 Attitudes and Environmental Citizenship
(2006) found that time spent outdoors was associated with the development of positive values about nature (see also Evans et al. 2018).
7.7.2 Retrospective Studies
We analysed studies focused on adults that asked them about their nature contact
during childhood. Wells and Lekies (2006) surveyed 2000 adults aged 18–90 years
in the United States and asked them about their experiences in nature before the age
of 11. Activities in wild nature (e.g. hunting, camping) and in domestic nature (e.g.
gardening) were related to EA and EB. The more nature experiences people
reported, the more likely it was that they had a positive attitude towards nature and
the environment, which could further influence pro-environmental behaviour.
Interestingly, the study revealed that frequency of exposure to nature had both a
direct effect on EB and an indirect one, mediated by EA.
The findings of retrospective studies lead to the hypothesis that significant life
experiences during childhood could be relevant for adults’ career decisions. In
review articles and studies with environmentalists in Norway and the United States
(Chawla 1999, 2007), the role of the time spent outdoors, the positive experiences
in natural environments, the family values and role models (e.g. family members)
were all found to be important for the career choices. Attari et al. (2009) analysed
three different methods of reaching energy-related behaviour: (1) voluntary actions
vs. regulations, (2) the reason for the restrictions: environmental or national security
and (3) sociodemographic characteristics. They conducted a non-representative survey among US citizens about what tools would encourage them to change from a
SUV to a smaller car and asked them to reason their choice.
Their results show that participants preferred either voluntary actions or soft
regulations over hard regulations to reach the more environmentally friendly behaviour but had no significant preference between voluntary actions and soft regulations. It also turned out that the framing of the problems had no significant effect on
the participants’ openness towards voluntary actions or regulations. Environmental
attitudes (measured by the NEP Scale) had a strong positive relationship with support for regulatory strategies intended to change the behaviours in question. They
also found a gender effect as women were more likely to support voluntary actions.
The loss of personal freedom was frequently mentioned as a reason for saying no to
hard regulations (Attari et al. 2009:1).
7.8 How Can Attitudes Be Changed?
Quite a lot of research analysed what influences behavioural change, as we have
shown above. Some authors, for example, Dobson (2007), argue that long-lasting
behavioural change can be reached by attitude change, but the core of it would be
7 Attitudes and Environmental Citizenship