The shuttle ended up flying only 11 missions on behalf of the Pentagon in the
end. More importantly, the shuttle reanimated interest for space exploration worldwide, which had faded soon after the Moon landing. It became the new American
spacefaring symbol,
20
re-establishing US technological supremacy over Moscow.
Indeed, the Russians considered the shuttle’s robotic arm a dangerous tool to neutralize their satellites, and so they hurried to build their own shuttle, named Buran
(“storm”). Buran flew only once for an unmanned test flight and then forever
remained on the ground due to lack of funding.
In Europe, Canada and Japan, the space shuttle was seen as an opportunity to
conduct research activity in a microgravity environment and to train future astronauts. Germany and Italy, also thanks to diplomatic US pressure,
21
signed bilateral
collaboration agreements with NASA. They sought to grow their industries and
research centres by freeing themselves from the French control that had characterized the early years of ESA.
22
In 1983, ESA built its first pressurized module, named Spacelab.
23
The module
was carried many times inside the shuttle cargo bay, hosting the astronauts working and living in orbit. Spacelab became the prototype model for the future ISS
habitation modules, which would be built in the following decade.
A few months after the shuttle’s maiden flight, Ronald Reagan, a former
Hollywood actor and then-Governor of California, was elected the 40
th
US
President. His victory came after a vehement anti-communist electoral campaign,
with the promise of restoring the American global leadership that had dramatically faded in the previous few years due to several political events during President
Carter’s presidency that had shaken US public opinion. This included the failed
CIA operation to free 52 hostages at the US embassy in Tehran,
24
which caused
the death of several marines as well as a wave of protest against the US in the Arab
20
Rockwell International Space Division. Space Shuttle Transportation System: A Promising
New Era for Earth, September 1976, and Space Shuttle: A Promising New Era for Earth,
January 1977.
21
Anders, William A. 1972. Executive Secretary, National Aeronautics and Space Council, to
The Honorable Peter M. Flanigan, March 17, 1972, with attached: “Position Paper on European
Participation in our Post-Apollo Space Program”; William P. Rogers, Secretary of State,
Memorandum for the President, “Post-Apollo Relationships With the Europeans, “April 29,
1972; and James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, to Honorable Henry A. Kissinger, Assistant
to the President for National Security Affairs, May 5, 1972, with attached: “NASA’s Comments
on Secretary Rogers’ Memorandum of April 29,1972”.
22
Krige, J., A. Russo, and L. Sebesta. A History of the European Space Agency 1958–1987,
Volume II. ESA SP-1235.
23
Spacelab 1 (StS-9, 1983), Spacelab 3 (StS 51-B, 1985), Spacelab 2 (STS 51-F, 1985), and
Spacelab German D-1 (STS 61-a, 1985), the 9th, 17th, 19th, and 22nd shuttle missions. See
The New York Times articles November–December 1983; April–May and July–August 1985.
24
https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short-history/iraniancrises.
Rocket Man: From The Space Shuttle to the International Space Station 45
end. More importantly, the shuttle reanimated interest for space exploration worldwide, which had faded soon after the Moon landing. It became the new American
spacefaring symbol,
20
re-establishing US technological supremacy over Moscow.
Indeed, the Russians considered the shuttle’s robotic arm a dangerous tool to neutralize their satellites, and so they hurried to build their own shuttle, named Buran
(“storm”). Buran flew only once for an unmanned test flight and then forever
remained on the ground due to lack of funding.
In Europe, Canada and Japan, the space shuttle was seen as an opportunity to
conduct research activity in a microgravity environment and to train future astronauts. Germany and Italy, also thanks to diplomatic US pressure,
21
signed bilateral
collaboration agreements with NASA. They sought to grow their industries and
research centres by freeing themselves from the French control that had characterized the early years of ESA.
22
In 1983, ESA built its first pressurized module, named Spacelab.
23
The module
was carried many times inside the shuttle cargo bay, hosting the astronauts working and living in orbit. Spacelab became the prototype model for the future ISS
habitation modules, which would be built in the following decade.
A few months after the shuttle’s maiden flight, Ronald Reagan, a former
Hollywood actor and then-Governor of California, was elected the 40
th
US
President. His victory came after a vehement anti-communist electoral campaign,
with the promise of restoring the American global leadership that had dramatically faded in the previous few years due to several political events during President
Carter’s presidency that had shaken US public opinion. This included the failed
CIA operation to free 52 hostages at the US embassy in Tehran,
24
which caused
the death of several marines as well as a wave of protest against the US in the Arab
20
Rockwell International Space Division. Space Shuttle Transportation System: A Promising
New Era for Earth, September 1976, and Space Shuttle: A Promising New Era for Earth,
January 1977.
21
Anders, William A. 1972. Executive Secretary, National Aeronautics and Space Council, to
The Honorable Peter M. Flanigan, March 17, 1972, with attached: “Position Paper on European
Participation in our Post-Apollo Space Program”; William P. Rogers, Secretary of State,
Memorandum for the President, “Post-Apollo Relationships With the Europeans, “April 29,
1972; and James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, to Honorable Henry A. Kissinger, Assistant
to the President for National Security Affairs, May 5, 1972, with attached: “NASA’s Comments
on Secretary Rogers’ Memorandum of April 29,1972”.
22
Krige, J., A. Russo, and L. Sebesta. A History of the European Space Agency 1958–1987,
Volume II. ESA SP-1235.
23
Spacelab 1 (StS-9, 1983), Spacelab 3 (StS 51-B, 1985), Spacelab 2 (STS 51-F, 1985), and
Spacelab German D-1 (STS 61-a, 1985), the 9th, 17th, 19th, and 22nd shuttle missions. See
The New York Times articles November–December 1983; April–May and July–August 1985.
24
https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/short-history/iraniancrises.
Rocket Man: From The Space Shuttle to the International Space Station 45