23
2.4 Ways of Understanding Society
2.4.1 Theory
Theory serves as a main guide to empirical exploration. It serves to simplify reality
and to describe and explain it in terms that are appropriate for – and thus comparable between – different contexts. Theory can be descriptive, prescriptive, or predictive and can be used to challenge stated and unstated assumptions. Theories are
characterised by their distinct perspectives and are (often) conceived of and
expressed to represent a special subject-position or vantage-point (Hay 2002, p 24).
This means that theory is not necessarily neutral, but often imbued by values and
interests.
Inspired by Colin Hay (2002) we will discuss three particular issues relating to
theory: the role of consensus and conflict theory in sustainability science; the tension between parsimony (the world is assumed to be simple and can be abstracted,
explained, and predicted) and complexity (the world is assumed to be nuanced and
can mainly be described concretely and only with some degree of plausibility); and
finally, the interaction between agency and structure in society.
2.4.2 Consensus or Conflict
An important source of incommensurability between the social sciences and most
natural sciences interested in the processes of environmental degradation, exploitation, or pollution, is how society is understood. We can identify two main types of
approaches to understand society, resembling what in sociology is called consensus
theory versus conflict theory.
According to consensus theory, shared norms and values are the foundation of a
stable harmonious society in which social change is slow and orderly. For example,
when using the concept of coupled social ecological systems, resilience can be seen
as the equivalent of stability, harmony, and the ‘good norm’ (Olsson et al. 2015;
Hatt 2013). In contrast, conflict theories emphasise competing interests between
groups in society meaning that social order is maintained by (material or discursive)
manipulation and control by dominant and powerful groups, and that transformational change develop from the tensions between these groups and the redistribution
of power (Meadowcroft 2011). According to conflict theory, institutions are shaped
by existing power imbalances, values, and social stratifications in society. This
implies that governance is executed and understood differently in consensus theories versus conflict theories.
2 Theoretical and Methodological Pluralism in Sustainability Science
2.4 Ways of Understanding Society
2.4.1 Theory
Theory serves as a main guide to empirical exploration. It serves to simplify reality
and to describe and explain it in terms that are appropriate for – and thus comparable between – different contexts. Theory can be descriptive, prescriptive, or predictive and can be used to challenge stated and unstated assumptions. Theories are
characterised by their distinct perspectives and are (often) conceived of and
expressed to represent a special subject-position or vantage-point (Hay 2002, p 24).
This means that theory is not necessarily neutral, but often imbued by values and
interests.
Inspired by Colin Hay (2002) we will discuss three particular issues relating to
theory: the role of consensus and conflict theory in sustainability science; the tension between parsimony (the world is assumed to be simple and can be abstracted,
explained, and predicted) and complexity (the world is assumed to be nuanced and
can mainly be described concretely and only with some degree of plausibility); and
finally, the interaction between agency and structure in society.
2.4.2 Consensus or Conflict
An important source of incommensurability between the social sciences and most
natural sciences interested in the processes of environmental degradation, exploitation, or pollution, is how society is understood. We can identify two main types of
approaches to understand society, resembling what in sociology is called consensus
theory versus conflict theory.
According to consensus theory, shared norms and values are the foundation of a
stable harmonious society in which social change is slow and orderly. For example,
when using the concept of coupled social ecological systems, resilience can be seen
as the equivalent of stability, harmony, and the ‘good norm’ (Olsson et al. 2015;
Hatt 2013). In contrast, conflict theories emphasise competing interests between
groups in society meaning that social order is maintained by (material or discursive)
manipulation and control by dominant and powerful groups, and that transformational change develop from the tensions between these groups and the redistribution
of power (Meadowcroft 2011). According to conflict theory, institutions are shaped
by existing power imbalances, values, and social stratifications in society. This
implies that governance is executed and understood differently in consensus theories versus conflict theories.
2 Theoretical and Methodological Pluralism in Sustainability Science