3
While today several methods for ES mapping and assessment are well- established
and have demonstrated their potential to provide useful information to decisionmaking (Burkhard et al. 2018), the challenge is on how multiple ES assessments can
be integrated to contribute to answer real-world policy questions. On the one hand,
decisions usually affect not a single but a bundle of ES (Jopke et al. 2015; Spake
et al. 2017), hence assessments able to account for multiple ES and their multiple
values are needed to investigate synergies and trade-offs potentially arising from
decisions (Geneletti et al. 2018). On the other hand, ES assessments should be able
to reflect views and opinions of the different stakeholders involved, including those
that are normally under-represented (Jacobs et al. 2016). Urban planning is an
example of decision-making process where complex policy questions are addressed,
a broad range of stakeholders is engaged, and multiple ES values emerge. In cities,
land-use decisions made during the planning process determine the availability of
ES fundamental to the wellbeing of urban population. Hence, the inclusion of ES in
planning is essential to promote sustainable urban development.
1.2 Planning for Ecosystem Services in Cities
Even though cities may seem to have little to do with the concept of ES, except for
largely benefitting from them while threatening their provision through urbanization processes (MA 2005), this view has progressively shifted during the last years.
While the ES science was developing, cities started to be seen not just as consumers
of ES supplied from outside urban areas, but also as producers themselves, as
already noted in the seminal work by Bolund and Hunhammar (1999). The study of
urban ES, i.e. of the “ES provided by urban ecosystems and their components”
(Gómez-Baggethun and Barton 2013), became a focus of ES research (Haase et al.
2014; Luederitz et al. 2015). Regulating and cultural ES emerged as the most relevant in urban areas (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton 2013; Elmqvist et al. 2016). By
regulating stormwater runoff and flows, purifying the air, regulating micro-climate,
reducing noise, and moderating environmental extremes, urban ecosystems affect
the quality of the urban environment and control the associated hazards. Moreover,
by providing suitable space for recreation, increasing the aesthetic quality of urban
spaces, offering opportunities for cultural enrichment, and preserving local identity
and sense of place, they provide a range of non-material benefits that are essential
for human and societal wellbeing in cities (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton 2013;
Elmqvist et al. 2016).
Preserving, restoring, and enhancing urban ES is therefore necessary to ensure
liveable, sustainable, and resilient cities (McPhearson et al. 2015; Botzat et al. 2016;
Frantzeskaki et al. 2016). Urban ES and associated benefits are linked to many of
the most pressing challenges for cities. Mitigating and adapting to climate change,
promoting citizens’ heath, enhancing social inclusion, and reducing the
environmental footprint of cities, to name just a few, all have a direct relation with
the provision of urban ES (Bowler et al. 2010a; Demuzere et al. 2014; McPhearson
1.2 Planning for Ecosystem Services in Cities
While today several methods for ES mapping and assessment are well- established
and have demonstrated their potential to provide useful information to decisionmaking (Burkhard et al. 2018), the challenge is on how multiple ES assessments can
be integrated to contribute to answer real-world policy questions. On the one hand,
decisions usually affect not a single but a bundle of ES (Jopke et al. 2015; Spake
et al. 2017), hence assessments able to account for multiple ES and their multiple
values are needed to investigate synergies and trade-offs potentially arising from
decisions (Geneletti et al. 2018). On the other hand, ES assessments should be able
to reflect views and opinions of the different stakeholders involved, including those
that are normally under-represented (Jacobs et al. 2016). Urban planning is an
example of decision-making process where complex policy questions are addressed,
a broad range of stakeholders is engaged, and multiple ES values emerge. In cities,
land-use decisions made during the planning process determine the availability of
ES fundamental to the wellbeing of urban population. Hence, the inclusion of ES in
planning is essential to promote sustainable urban development.
1.2 Planning for Ecosystem Services in Cities
Even though cities may seem to have little to do with the concept of ES, except for
largely benefitting from them while threatening their provision through urbanization processes (MA 2005), this view has progressively shifted during the last years.
While the ES science was developing, cities started to be seen not just as consumers
of ES supplied from outside urban areas, but also as producers themselves, as
already noted in the seminal work by Bolund and Hunhammar (1999). The study of
urban ES, i.e. of the “ES provided by urban ecosystems and their components”
(Gómez-Baggethun and Barton 2013), became a focus of ES research (Haase et al.
2014; Luederitz et al. 2015). Regulating and cultural ES emerged as the most relevant in urban areas (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton 2013; Elmqvist et al. 2016). By
regulating stormwater runoff and flows, purifying the air, regulating micro-climate,
reducing noise, and moderating environmental extremes, urban ecosystems affect
the quality of the urban environment and control the associated hazards. Moreover,
by providing suitable space for recreation, increasing the aesthetic quality of urban
spaces, offering opportunities for cultural enrichment, and preserving local identity
and sense of place, they provide a range of non-material benefits that are essential
for human and societal wellbeing in cities (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton 2013;
Elmqvist et al. 2016).
Preserving, restoring, and enhancing urban ES is therefore necessary to ensure
liveable, sustainable, and resilient cities (McPhearson et al. 2015; Botzat et al. 2016;
Frantzeskaki et al. 2016). Urban ES and associated benefits are linked to many of
the most pressing challenges for cities. Mitigating and adapting to climate change,
promoting citizens’ heath, enhancing social inclusion, and reducing the
environmental footprint of cities, to name just a few, all have a direct relation with
the provision of urban ES (Bowler et al. 2010a; Demuzere et al. 2014; McPhearson
1.2 Planning for Ecosystem Services in Cities