increases in energy use and emissions (Mulder and Groot, 2004). Development and
spread of energy efficient technologies and renewable energy will play a key role in
the process (Yang and Yu 2015; Edenhofer et al. 2011). The adoption of low-carbon
transport systems is also high on the agenda (Dalkmann and Huizenga 2010). While
such mitigation measures are needed, their impacts will be long-term and dependent
on widespread societal adoption. Even in best scenarios, it will take many decades
before they take effect. According to IPCC (2015), emissions scenarios that keep
warming below 2
C over the twenty-first century relative to pre-industrial levels will
involve 40–70 % reductions in global anthropogenic emissions by 2050 and near-zero
emission levels by 2100. Although this is consistent with the Paris Agreement targets,
the current voluntary mitigation efforts by signatory countries fall well short of this.
It is consequently necessary to invest in adaptation to climate change and to
enhance societal resilience to climate change impacts. Adaptation refers to reducing
the adverse effects of climate change on human and natural systems. At the 2010
UNFCCC conference in Cancun, Mexico, the parties adopted the Cancun Adaptation Framework
5 affirming that adaptation must be addressed with the same level of
priority as mitigation. They further agreed that adaptation is a challenge faced by all
parties, and that enhanced action and international cooperation is urgently required
to enable and support the implementation of adaptation actions aimed at reducing
vulnerability and building resilience in developing countries (para 11). IPCC (2015)
recognizes that adaptation options exist in all sectors but their context and potential
differ between sectors and regions. Furthermore, adaptation and mitigation
responses are underpinned by common factors, including effectiveness of institutions and governance, innovation and investments in environmentally sound technologies and infrastructure, sustainable livelihoods and behavioural and lifestyle
choices (SPM 4.1).
Several international financial and technical facilities have been set up to help
countries address climate change challenges. The Global Environment Facility
6
(GEF) has already been in existence for a quarter century as the financial mechanism to the UNFCCC. It finances projects in developing countries that focus on
mitigation efforts. The GEF recognizes the multidisciplinary nature of mitigation.
While greenhouse gas emission reductions through promotion of sustainable transport, energy efficiency and renewable energy are important, emissions reductions
from sectors, such as land use and forestry are also important, as is protecting global
carbon sinks like the oceans. The World Bank manages the Climate Investment
Funds
7 that operate through four key programmes that help developing countries
pilot low-emissions and climate resilient development: the Clean Technology Fund,
Forest Investment Programme, Pilot Programme for Climate Resilience, and Scaling up Renewable Energy Programme. The Adaptation Fund
8 helps developing
5 http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf#page¼4 (downloaded 8 April 2016).
6 https://www.thegef.org/gef/
7 https://www-cif.climateinvestmentfunds.org/
8 https://www.adaptation-fund.org/
4
J.I. Uitto et al.
spread of energy efficient technologies and renewable energy will play a key role in
the process (Yang and Yu 2015; Edenhofer et al. 2011). The adoption of low-carbon
transport systems is also high on the agenda (Dalkmann and Huizenga 2010). While
such mitigation measures are needed, their impacts will be long-term and dependent
on widespread societal adoption. Even in best scenarios, it will take many decades
before they take effect. According to IPCC (2015), emissions scenarios that keep
warming below 2
C over the twenty-first century relative to pre-industrial levels will
involve 40–70 % reductions in global anthropogenic emissions by 2050 and near-zero
emission levels by 2100. Although this is consistent with the Paris Agreement targets,
the current voluntary mitigation efforts by signatory countries fall well short of this.
It is consequently necessary to invest in adaptation to climate change and to
enhance societal resilience to climate change impacts. Adaptation refers to reducing
the adverse effects of climate change on human and natural systems. At the 2010
UNFCCC conference in Cancun, Mexico, the parties adopted the Cancun Adaptation Framework
5 affirming that adaptation must be addressed with the same level of
priority as mitigation. They further agreed that adaptation is a challenge faced by all
parties, and that enhanced action and international cooperation is urgently required
to enable and support the implementation of adaptation actions aimed at reducing
vulnerability and building resilience in developing countries (para 11). IPCC (2015)
recognizes that adaptation options exist in all sectors but their context and potential
differ between sectors and regions. Furthermore, adaptation and mitigation
responses are underpinned by common factors, including effectiveness of institutions and governance, innovation and investments in environmentally sound technologies and infrastructure, sustainable livelihoods and behavioural and lifestyle
choices (SPM 4.1).
Several international financial and technical facilities have been set up to help
countries address climate change challenges. The Global Environment Facility
6
(GEF) has already been in existence for a quarter century as the financial mechanism to the UNFCCC. It finances projects in developing countries that focus on
mitigation efforts. The GEF recognizes the multidisciplinary nature of mitigation.
While greenhouse gas emission reductions through promotion of sustainable transport, energy efficiency and renewable energy are important, emissions reductions
from sectors, such as land use and forestry are also important, as is protecting global
carbon sinks like the oceans. The World Bank manages the Climate Investment
Funds
7 that operate through four key programmes that help developing countries
pilot low-emissions and climate resilient development: the Clean Technology Fund,
Forest Investment Programme, Pilot Programme for Climate Resilience, and Scaling up Renewable Energy Programme. The Adaptation Fund
8 helps developing
5 http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf#page¼4 (downloaded 8 April 2016).
6 https://www.thegef.org/gef/
7 https://www-cif.climateinvestmentfunds.org/
8 https://www.adaptation-fund.org/
4
J.I. Uitto et al.