and for investigating marked orographical differences within relatively small areas
(Burley et al. 2015).
1.2.3 Long-Distance Atmospheric Fertilization
Part of the decline in stratospheric ozone is due to the emission of nitrogen oxides
to the atmosphere. Nitrogen emissions have many other effects. The perturbation of
the nitrogen cycle is probably also beyond the limits of a sustainable Earth system
(Steffen et al. 2015). Crystalline rocks dominate in many high-mountain landscapes.
Soils and waters on these bedrocks show little acid neutralizing capacity. Therefore,
mountains in areas receiving acid deposition due to emissions of sulfur and nitrogen
oxides to the atmosphere suffer acidification (Psenner and Catalan 1994). Visible
consequences (e.g., fish kills, tree defoliation) had prompt to an international
reaction of successful results in controlling sulfur emissions and severe acidification
(Catalan et al. 2013). However, nitrogen emissions are still high and difficult to
reduce because of their multiple sources—industrial, agricultural and urban. In
addition to being acidifying agents, N compounds are also fertilizers for plants
(Stevens et al. 2015). Increasing atmospheric CO 2 , nitrogen deposition and temperature all point to an acceleration of primary productivity. In recent years, P
atmospheric deposition has also been identified as being enhanced by human
industrialization (Penuelas et al. 2013a). Mountain soils and waters are exposed to
all these fertilizing agents, which are changing the biogeochemical cycles in the
high mountains in a way not sufficiently understood (Camarero and Catalan 2012).
1.2.4 Biotic Dispersal Enhancement
Increased transport of goods and people is a feature of the post-industrial society.
This has facilitated the dispersal of all kinds of organisms to longer distances and
with higher frequency. Mountain natural reserves are increasingly exposed to exotic
and invasive species and new diseases and pests (Pauchard et al. 2009).
Amphibians have been particularly suffering this pressure. Chytridiomycosis has
been spreading quickly around the world and devastating some of their populations
(Wake and Vredenburg 2008). The interaction between pests and climate change is
a major source of uncertainty in conservation. Tree populations at their ecological
limits may be more prompt to infection, which may accelerate and otherwise slow
substitution of species (Camarero 2017a).
In some ranges, fish stocking is the primary pressure on amphibians (Miró and
Ventura 2013). Human enhancement of fish dispersal in mountain lakes, which are
naturally fishless, is a complex behavioral and economic phenomenon where
ignorance and interest play significant roles and poses major difficulties to conservation (Ventura et al. 2017). In the current shifting environmental conditions,
1 The High Mountain Conservation in a Changing World
9
(Burley et al. 2015).
1.2.3 Long-Distance Atmospheric Fertilization
Part of the decline in stratospheric ozone is due to the emission of nitrogen oxides
to the atmosphere. Nitrogen emissions have many other effects. The perturbation of
the nitrogen cycle is probably also beyond the limits of a sustainable Earth system
(Steffen et al. 2015). Crystalline rocks dominate in many high-mountain landscapes.
Soils and waters on these bedrocks show little acid neutralizing capacity. Therefore,
mountains in areas receiving acid deposition due to emissions of sulfur and nitrogen
oxides to the atmosphere suffer acidification (Psenner and Catalan 1994). Visible
consequences (e.g., fish kills, tree defoliation) had prompt to an international
reaction of successful results in controlling sulfur emissions and severe acidification
(Catalan et al. 2013). However, nitrogen emissions are still high and difficult to
reduce because of their multiple sources—industrial, agricultural and urban. In
addition to being acidifying agents, N compounds are also fertilizers for plants
(Stevens et al. 2015). Increasing atmospheric CO 2 , nitrogen deposition and temperature all point to an acceleration of primary productivity. In recent years, P
atmospheric deposition has also been identified as being enhanced by human
industrialization (Penuelas et al. 2013a). Mountain soils and waters are exposed to
all these fertilizing agents, which are changing the biogeochemical cycles in the
high mountains in a way not sufficiently understood (Camarero and Catalan 2012).
1.2.4 Biotic Dispersal Enhancement
Increased transport of goods and people is a feature of the post-industrial society.
This has facilitated the dispersal of all kinds of organisms to longer distances and
with higher frequency. Mountain natural reserves are increasingly exposed to exotic
and invasive species and new diseases and pests (Pauchard et al. 2009).
Amphibians have been particularly suffering this pressure. Chytridiomycosis has
been spreading quickly around the world and devastating some of their populations
(Wake and Vredenburg 2008). The interaction between pests and climate change is
a major source of uncertainty in conservation. Tree populations at their ecological
limits may be more prompt to infection, which may accelerate and otherwise slow
substitution of species (Camarero 2017a).
In some ranges, fish stocking is the primary pressure on amphibians (Miró and
Ventura 2013). Human enhancement of fish dispersal in mountain lakes, which are
naturally fishless, is a complex behavioral and economic phenomenon where
ignorance and interest play significant roles and poses major difficulties to conservation (Ventura et al. 2017). In the current shifting environmental conditions,
1 The High Mountain Conservation in a Changing World
9