60
roads showed an overall higher allergenicity than pollen from low-traffic roads and
vegetated areas (Ghiani et al. 2012). Beck et al. (2013) documented a positive relationship between atmospheric ozone (O 3 ) levels and the amount of Bet v 1 in pollen
samples collected from birch trees in outdoor stands in Bavaria, Germany. However,
further clarification is needed regarding what the combined effect of ozone, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide and air temperature on pollen allergenicity is on a plant
population or ecosystem level. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that
urbanisation, high levels of vehicle emissions and a Westernised lifestyle are correlated with an increase in the frequency of pollen-induced respiratory allergy,
which is more prominent in people who live in urban areas compared to those who
live in rural areas (Haftenberger et al. 2013).
3.7 Pollen Information Services
Airborne pollen is routinely monitored worldwide, mainly for providing information on pollen season occurrence with a view to allergy prevention. Hirst-type
devices are the most widely used pollen samplers worldwide (e.g. Galán et al.
2014). The device is volumetric and samples with a stable suction of airflow
(10 l min
−1
). Captured pollen grains are processed in the laboratory and then analysed under an optical microscope (manually identified and counted by expert scientists). The identification level is usually per genus for woody taxa and per family for
herbaceous taxa. All measurements are expressed as numbers of pollen per cubic
metre of air (e.g. British Aerobiology Federation 1995; Galán et al. 2014).
Pollen data from Hirst-type traps do not allow for real-time pollen measurements
and timely dissemination of airborne pollen concentrations, even though their main
purpose is to provide information on airborne particle abundance to allergic individuals. Hence, predictions with a minimum of a weekly forecasting horizon had to
be developed. Additionally, a lot of effort and time are required because of the laborious nature of the microscopical identification technique. It is evident that there is
an overall need for faster, near real-time reporting of airborne pollen concentrations.
To date, high-risk pollen exposure alerts have been provided only via mid-term pollen season forecasting models, which are often not of good accuracy for operational
and everyday medical practice. The future aim is to disseminate airborne pollen
measurements using a novel automatic, real-time pollen sampler, in order to provide
timely and accurate warning alerts to allergic patients throughout the duration of the
pollen season, with the ultimate aim of more efficiently managing allergic diseases.
A new generation of automated, near real-time pollen measurements is currently
being developed, and has already been able, in some cases, to work on an operational basis (Oteros et al. 2015; Häring et al. 2017). The most well-developed,
promising or already operating automated pollen measuring devices are located in
A. Damialis et al.
roads showed an overall higher allergenicity than pollen from low-traffic roads and
vegetated areas (Ghiani et al. 2012). Beck et al. (2013) documented a positive relationship between atmospheric ozone (O 3 ) levels and the amount of Bet v 1 in pollen
samples collected from birch trees in outdoor stands in Bavaria, Germany. However,
further clarification is needed regarding what the combined effect of ozone, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide and air temperature on pollen allergenicity is on a plant
population or ecosystem level. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that
urbanisation, high levels of vehicle emissions and a Westernised lifestyle are correlated with an increase in the frequency of pollen-induced respiratory allergy,
which is more prominent in people who live in urban areas compared to those who
live in rural areas (Haftenberger et al. 2013).
3.7 Pollen Information Services
Airborne pollen is routinely monitored worldwide, mainly for providing information on pollen season occurrence with a view to allergy prevention. Hirst-type
devices are the most widely used pollen samplers worldwide (e.g. Galán et al.
2014). The device is volumetric and samples with a stable suction of airflow
(10 l min
−1
). Captured pollen grains are processed in the laboratory and then analysed under an optical microscope (manually identified and counted by expert scientists). The identification level is usually per genus for woody taxa and per family for
herbaceous taxa. All measurements are expressed as numbers of pollen per cubic
metre of air (e.g. British Aerobiology Federation 1995; Galán et al. 2014).
Pollen data from Hirst-type traps do not allow for real-time pollen measurements
and timely dissemination of airborne pollen concentrations, even though their main
purpose is to provide information on airborne particle abundance to allergic individuals. Hence, predictions with a minimum of a weekly forecasting horizon had to
be developed. Additionally, a lot of effort and time are required because of the laborious nature of the microscopical identification technique. It is evident that there is
an overall need for faster, near real-time reporting of airborne pollen concentrations.
To date, high-risk pollen exposure alerts have been provided only via mid-term pollen season forecasting models, which are often not of good accuracy for operational
and everyday medical practice. The future aim is to disseminate airborne pollen
measurements using a novel automatic, real-time pollen sampler, in order to provide
timely and accurate warning alerts to allergic patients throughout the duration of the
pollen season, with the ultimate aim of more efficiently managing allergic diseases.
A new generation of automated, near real-time pollen measurements is currently
being developed, and has already been able, in some cases, to work on an operational basis (Oteros et al. 2015; Häring et al. 2017). The most well-developed,
promising or already operating automated pollen measuring devices are located in
A. Damialis et al.