365
air, water supplies and protection against floods, coastal storms and other natural
disasters (Dudley et al. 2010; Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2013). At the same time,
rapid urbanisation is affecting the very ecosystems on which cities and urban citizens depend by exerting pressures on freshwater supplies and increasing pollution
(Mcdonald et al. 2008). With the dual challenges of climate change and rapid urbanisation, improving the public health of urban residents will be of particular
importance.
Increasing urbanisation brings its own challenges in terms of human health.
Non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer and
depression are now among the fastest growing health challenges around the world
(WHO 2005, 2014). While many factors are involved in this increase, lifestyle factors such as physical activity, diet and stress are particularly important (WHO 2014).
There is also increasing evidence that lack of access to nature in cities, and associated sedentary, indoor lifestyles, is linked with physical and mental health disorders
including vitamin D deficiency, asthma, anxiety and depression (Gelsthorpe 2017).
Better access to nature has been shown to have positive physical and mental health
benefits and can even contribute to healing after surgery (Sandifer et al. 2015;
Townsend et al. 2015, Cook et al. Chap. 11, this volume).
There is increasing evidence that biodiversity and healthy natural ecosystems,
including protected areas, can help climate change adaptation by serving as a natural buffer against climate-related disasters, contributing to water and food security,
and playing a critical role in maintaining human health and well-being (Dudley
et al. 2010; IUCN 2016a, b; Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2013). A healthy ecosystem is
one that is sustainable – that is, it has the ability to maintain its structure (organisation) and function (vigour) over time in the face of external stress (resilience)
(Costanza et al. 1999). In this chapter, we argue that effective protection, management and restoration of protected areas and other natural ecosystems can be practical, cost-effective and help to meet the interlinked goals for biodiversity, health and
climate change adaptation in a rapidly-urbanising world. Identifying and understanding the synergies between nature, health, urban development and national climate change policies and programmes will be critical for delivering many of the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially those relating
to water, health and sustainable cities.
16.2 Protected Areas: Contributing to Healthy Societies
Protected areas and other natural ecosystems can contribute positively to human
health in various ways, many of which are just beginning to be understood. These
can be categorised as follows: (i) by providing ecosystem benefits and services that
sustain life and regulate against detrimental health effects from climate, floods,
infectious diseases, etc.; (ii) as botanical sources for both traditional and modern
medicines; and (iii) by providing direct benefits to physical, spiritual and mental
health through time spent in nature.
16 Nature-Based Solutions and Protected Areas to Improve Urban Biodiversity…
air, water supplies and protection against floods, coastal storms and other natural
disasters (Dudley et al. 2010; Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2013). At the same time,
rapid urbanisation is affecting the very ecosystems on which cities and urban citizens depend by exerting pressures on freshwater supplies and increasing pollution
(Mcdonald et al. 2008). With the dual challenges of climate change and rapid urbanisation, improving the public health of urban residents will be of particular
importance.
Increasing urbanisation brings its own challenges in terms of human health.
Non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer and
depression are now among the fastest growing health challenges around the world
(WHO 2005, 2014). While many factors are involved in this increase, lifestyle factors such as physical activity, diet and stress are particularly important (WHO 2014).
There is also increasing evidence that lack of access to nature in cities, and associated sedentary, indoor lifestyles, is linked with physical and mental health disorders
including vitamin D deficiency, asthma, anxiety and depression (Gelsthorpe 2017).
Better access to nature has been shown to have positive physical and mental health
benefits and can even contribute to healing after surgery (Sandifer et al. 2015;
Townsend et al. 2015, Cook et al. Chap. 11, this volume).
There is increasing evidence that biodiversity and healthy natural ecosystems,
including protected areas, can help climate change adaptation by serving as a natural buffer against climate-related disasters, contributing to water and food security,
and playing a critical role in maintaining human health and well-being (Dudley
et al. 2010; IUCN 2016a, b; Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2013). A healthy ecosystem is
one that is sustainable – that is, it has the ability to maintain its structure (organisation) and function (vigour) over time in the face of external stress (resilience)
(Costanza et al. 1999). In this chapter, we argue that effective protection, management and restoration of protected areas and other natural ecosystems can be practical, cost-effective and help to meet the interlinked goals for biodiversity, health and
climate change adaptation in a rapidly-urbanising world. Identifying and understanding the synergies between nature, health, urban development and national climate change policies and programmes will be critical for delivering many of the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially those relating
to water, health and sustainable cities.
16.2 Protected Areas: Contributing to Healthy Societies
Protected areas and other natural ecosystems can contribute positively to human
health in various ways, many of which are just beginning to be understood. These
can be categorised as follows: (i) by providing ecosystem benefits and services that
sustain life and regulate against detrimental health effects from climate, floods,
infectious diseases, etc.; (ii) as botanical sources for both traditional and modern
medicines; and (iii) by providing direct benefits to physical, spiritual and mental
health through time spent in nature.
16 Nature-Based Solutions and Protected Areas to Improve Urban Biodiversity…