224
which are often rich in biodiversity, “can contribute to biodiversity conservation
strategies” due to the special precautions associated with them (p. 575). Additionally,
conservation of these sites aids the preservation of local cultures and their traditional ecological knowledges.
Of particular interest amongst researchers in this area are sacred groves and
sacred forests (e.g. Juhé-Beaulaton 2008; Ormsby and Bhagwat 2010; Sheridan and
Nyamweru 2008; Sponsel 2012; Tomalin 2009). Sacred groves are patches of natural vegetation dedicated to local deities and protected by religious tenets and cultural traditions; they may also be tree-stands raised in honor of heroes and warriors
and maintained by the local community (Ramanujam and Cyril 2003). Taboos
against over-harvesting, harming particular sacred species or disrupting the ecological balance of sacred groves and forests can preserve species richness. For example,
the Nkodurom and Pinkwae sacred groves in Ghana have been protected through
traditional beliefs and taboos, resulting in preservation of threatened mollusk, turtle,
monkey and heron species (Ntiamoa-Baidu 2008). In India, the number and spatial
distribution of sacred groves creates a network that preserves “a sizable portion of
the local biodiversity in areas where it would not be feasible to maintain large tracts
of protected forests” (Bhagwat and Rutte 2006, p. 520). Local traditions that include
worshipping trees in a sacred grove helped to preserve a rare bat species, and, in
another area, spiritual beliefs about a hidden shrine within a sacred grove preserved
riparian forests and streams (Bhagwat and Rutte 2006). In central Italy, local
Catholic practices around pilgrimage sites have helped to conserve biodiversity
through preserving relic habitats and vegetation assemblages, protecting old growth
forests and tree species, and maintaining greater habitat heterogeneity due to sacred
grottos and water sources (Frascaroli 2013). Reflecting on forest preservation by the
official association of Shinto shrines in Japan, Rots (2015) observes: “The significance of these forests … extends well beyond ecology and nature conservation
proper. Constituting continuity between the present and the ancestral past, they have
come to be seen as local community centers that provide social cohesion and spiritual well-being” (p. 209).
Many studies of biodiversity at sacred sites have used standard ecological survey
techniques of tree species diversity, tree species richness, regeneration status, floristic surveys of vegetation composition and ethnobotanical uses of species (Bharathi
and Devi Prasad 2017; Hu et al. 2011; Khumbongmayum et al. 2005). An alternative approach was taken by Anderson et al. (2005) in documenting the biodiversity
of sacred mountains in the Himalayas of Tibet. Existing vegetation maps and geographic information systems (GIS) were used to remotely assess species composition, diversity and frequency of useful and endemic plant species. Sacred mountains
had significantly greater overall species diversity than surrounding areas. These
studies highlight the various measures being used to document biodiversity preservation in sacred protected areas.
K. N. Irvine et al.
which are often rich in biodiversity, “can contribute to biodiversity conservation
strategies” due to the special precautions associated with them (p. 575). Additionally,
conservation of these sites aids the preservation of local cultures and their traditional ecological knowledges.
Of particular interest amongst researchers in this area are sacred groves and
sacred forests (e.g. Juhé-Beaulaton 2008; Ormsby and Bhagwat 2010; Sheridan and
Nyamweru 2008; Sponsel 2012; Tomalin 2009). Sacred groves are patches of natural vegetation dedicated to local deities and protected by religious tenets and cultural traditions; they may also be tree-stands raised in honor of heroes and warriors
and maintained by the local community (Ramanujam and Cyril 2003). Taboos
against over-harvesting, harming particular sacred species or disrupting the ecological balance of sacred groves and forests can preserve species richness. For example,
the Nkodurom and Pinkwae sacred groves in Ghana have been protected through
traditional beliefs and taboos, resulting in preservation of threatened mollusk, turtle,
monkey and heron species (Ntiamoa-Baidu 2008). In India, the number and spatial
distribution of sacred groves creates a network that preserves “a sizable portion of
the local biodiversity in areas where it would not be feasible to maintain large tracts
of protected forests” (Bhagwat and Rutte 2006, p. 520). Local traditions that include
worshipping trees in a sacred grove helped to preserve a rare bat species, and, in
another area, spiritual beliefs about a hidden shrine within a sacred grove preserved
riparian forests and streams (Bhagwat and Rutte 2006). In central Italy, local
Catholic practices around pilgrimage sites have helped to conserve biodiversity
through preserving relic habitats and vegetation assemblages, protecting old growth
forests and tree species, and maintaining greater habitat heterogeneity due to sacred
grottos and water sources (Frascaroli 2013). Reflecting on forest preservation by the
official association of Shinto shrines in Japan, Rots (2015) observes: “The significance of these forests … extends well beyond ecology and nature conservation
proper. Constituting continuity between the present and the ancestral past, they have
come to be seen as local community centers that provide social cohesion and spiritual well-being” (p. 209).
Many studies of biodiversity at sacred sites have used standard ecological survey
techniques of tree species diversity, tree species richness, regeneration status, floristic surveys of vegetation composition and ethnobotanical uses of species (Bharathi
and Devi Prasad 2017; Hu et al. 2011; Khumbongmayum et al. 2005). An alternative approach was taken by Anderson et al. (2005) in documenting the biodiversity
of sacred mountains in the Himalayas of Tibet. Existing vegetation maps and geographic information systems (GIS) were used to remotely assess species composition, diversity and frequency of useful and endemic plant species. Sacred mountains
had significantly greater overall species diversity than surrounding areas. These
studies highlight the various measures being used to document biodiversity preservation in sacred protected areas.
K. N. Irvine et al.