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people to rest and recover their ability to direct attention. Natural environments are
theorised to be especially good environments for attention restoration, because natural environments have a high level of these four restorative qualities (Kaplan and
Kaplan 1989; Kaplan 1995).
7.3.2.1 Connection to Biodiversity in the ART
Biodiversity was not a concept that was used in the original theoretical writings of
the ART. However, using the theory, one could hypothesise that more biodiverse
natural environments may be better environments for restoring directed attention as
they may contain fascinating stimuli and afford the experience of being away.
Indeed, the relationship between biodiverse environments and the four experiential
restorative qualities of ART has been investigated. A significant, positive association between the objectively assessed level of biodiversity and all four qualities of a
restorative environment has been found (Scopelliti et al. 2012). However, small
urban green spaces rich in plant and animal species were found to be positively
related to coherence, but negatively related to fascination, and not related to being
away or compatibility (Peschardt and Stigsdotter 2013). Examing perceived biodiversity, Marselle et al. (2016) found perceived biodiversity of birds was positively
associated with being away, fascination and compatibility, but not coherence
(Marselle et al. 2016). Whereas, perceived biodiversity of plants/trees and butterflies were not related to any restorative qualities (Marselle et al. 2016). Foo (2016)
investigated the mediating pathways between spending time in forest environments
with low, medium or high levels of biodiversity, and mental health. Individuals who
spent time in medium or high biodiverse forest environments experienced a sense of
being away, which was positively associated with a change in mood, which then
was related to improved mental health. This multiple mediation pathway was not
found in the low biodiverse forest. Significant, positive associations between objectively assessed level of biodiversity and perceived restorativeness – a composite
measure of all four experiential qualities – have also been found (Scopelliti et al.
2012; Carrus et al. 2015). Measuring biodiversity indirectly by investigating different landscape types in the Black Forest National Park, Ensinger and von Lindern
(2018) found significantly greater fascination, being away and compatibility from
walking in wilderness compared to other types of landscapes (see Box 7.4).
Researchers have also investigated whether biodiversity could facilitate restoration as an outcome – without investigating the specific four experiential qualities of
ART. White et al. (2017) found greater perceived species richness of animals/plants
was positively associated with perceived restorative potential. As the level of biodiversity perceived in the environment increased, more participants reported that the
environment would be good for restoration. However, Cracknell et al. (2017) found
that abundance of all fish/crustaceans, and not the number of species, influenced
participants’ perception of the scene as restorative. See Korpela et al. (2018) for
further details of studies examining biodiversity and ART outcomes.
M. R. Marselle
people to rest and recover their ability to direct attention. Natural environments are
theorised to be especially good environments for attention restoration, because natural environments have a high level of these four restorative qualities (Kaplan and
Kaplan 1989; Kaplan 1995).
7.3.2.1 Connection to Biodiversity in the ART
Biodiversity was not a concept that was used in the original theoretical writings of
the ART. However, using the theory, one could hypothesise that more biodiverse
natural environments may be better environments for restoring directed attention as
they may contain fascinating stimuli and afford the experience of being away.
Indeed, the relationship between biodiverse environments and the four experiential
restorative qualities of ART has been investigated. A significant, positive association between the objectively assessed level of biodiversity and all four qualities of a
restorative environment has been found (Scopelliti et al. 2012). However, small
urban green spaces rich in plant and animal species were found to be positively
related to coherence, but negatively related to fascination, and not related to being
away or compatibility (Peschardt and Stigsdotter 2013). Examing perceived biodiversity, Marselle et al. (2016) found perceived biodiversity of birds was positively
associated with being away, fascination and compatibility, but not coherence
(Marselle et al. 2016). Whereas, perceived biodiversity of plants/trees and butterflies were not related to any restorative qualities (Marselle et al. 2016). Foo (2016)
investigated the mediating pathways between spending time in forest environments
with low, medium or high levels of biodiversity, and mental health. Individuals who
spent time in medium or high biodiverse forest environments experienced a sense of
being away, which was positively associated with a change in mood, which then
was related to improved mental health. This multiple mediation pathway was not
found in the low biodiverse forest. Significant, positive associations between objectively assessed level of biodiversity and perceived restorativeness – a composite
measure of all four experiential qualities – have also been found (Scopelliti et al.
2012; Carrus et al. 2015). Measuring biodiversity indirectly by investigating different landscape types in the Black Forest National Park, Ensinger and von Lindern
(2018) found significantly greater fascination, being away and compatibility from
walking in wilderness compared to other types of landscapes (see Box 7.4).
Researchers have also investigated whether biodiversity could facilitate restoration as an outcome – without investigating the specific four experiential qualities of
ART. White et al. (2017) found greater perceived species richness of animals/plants
was positively associated with perceived restorative potential. As the level of biodiversity perceived in the environment increased, more participants reported that the
environment would be good for restoration. However, Cracknell et al. (2017) found
that abundance of all fish/crustaceans, and not the number of species, influenced
participants’ perception of the scene as restorative. See Korpela et al. (2018) for
further details of studies examining biodiversity and ART outcomes.
M. R. Marselle