125
brain structure to assess whether lifelong exposure to green space surrounding the
residential address was associated with beneficial structural changes in the developing brain in 253 urban schoolchildren (Dadvand et al. 2018a). This study detected
that such exposure was associated with an increase in grey matter volume in the
prefrontal and premotor cortices and an increase in white matter volume in the prefrontal, premotor and cerebellar regions. These structural changes were in turn associated with improved working memory and reduced inattentiveness. These findings
provide novel evidence that long-term contact with green spaces is associated with
beneficial and potentially lasting changes in brain structure.
6.5 Respiratory and Allergic Conditions
The available evidence on the effects of green spaces on asthma and allergic conditions in children is inconsistent (Lambert et al. 2017). While a number of studies
have reported a higher risk of allergic conditions and exacerbation of asthma in
children in relation to green spaces (Dadvand et al. 2014a; DellaValle et al. 2012;
Fuertes et al. 2016; Lovasi et al. 2013), others have shown no or even protective
associations (Dadvand et al. 2014a; Fuertes et al. 2016; Hanski et al. 2012; Lovasi
et al. 2008; Müller-Rompa et al. 2018; Pilat et al. 2012; Tischer et al. 2017, 2018).
These inconsistencies reflect the potential conflicting functions of green spaces in
relation to these health outcomes. For example, green spaces can increase the risk
of asthma and allergic conditions through releasing allergic pollens (DellaValle
et al. 2012; Lovasi et al. 2013) and fungal spores (Bartra et al. 2009; De Linares
et al. 2010), or through pesticides or fertilisers used for green space maintenance
(Corsini et al. 2012; see also Damialis et al. Chap. 3, this volume). On the other
hand, green spaces can prevent these conditions through enriching environmental
biodiversity, mitigating exposure to air pollution and, to a lesser extent, encouraging
physical activity and reducing the risk of obesity (Hanski et al. 2012; Lovasi et al.
2008; Pilat et al. 2012). The heterogeneity in the available literature could also have
been, in part, due to the poor metrics that did not take into account the differential
allergenicity of different vegetation species or seasonal variation in their allergenic
properties. Different types of green spaces (e.g. parks vs. forests) and different climates/settings could also be contributing factors to such a heterogeneity. For example, a study from Spain reported that residing close to urban parks was associated
with a higher risk of concurrent asthma and allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, while residing close to natural green spaces (e.g. forests) was not (Dadvand et al. 2014a).
Another study that evaluated the impacts of green spaces on respiratory outcomes
reported different impacts across two bio-geographic regions in Spain (Tischer et al.
2017). In the Euro-Siberian region, characterised by a humid climate with water
availability throughout the year, cold winters and maximum vegetation during summer months (Alcaraz-Segura et al. 2009), green spaces were negatively associated
with wheezing. In the Mediterranean region, characterised by an arid climate with
hot and dry summers, mild and rainy winters, and maximum vegetation between
6 Green Spaces and Child Health and Development
brain structure to assess whether lifelong exposure to green space surrounding the
residential address was associated with beneficial structural changes in the developing brain in 253 urban schoolchildren (Dadvand et al. 2018a). This study detected
that such exposure was associated with an increase in grey matter volume in the
prefrontal and premotor cortices and an increase in white matter volume in the prefrontal, premotor and cerebellar regions. These structural changes were in turn associated with improved working memory and reduced inattentiveness. These findings
provide novel evidence that long-term contact with green spaces is associated with
beneficial and potentially lasting changes in brain structure.
6.5 Respiratory and Allergic Conditions
The available evidence on the effects of green spaces on asthma and allergic conditions in children is inconsistent (Lambert et al. 2017). While a number of studies
have reported a higher risk of allergic conditions and exacerbation of asthma in
children in relation to green spaces (Dadvand et al. 2014a; DellaValle et al. 2012;
Fuertes et al. 2016; Lovasi et al. 2013), others have shown no or even protective
associations (Dadvand et al. 2014a; Fuertes et al. 2016; Hanski et al. 2012; Lovasi
et al. 2008; Müller-Rompa et al. 2018; Pilat et al. 2012; Tischer et al. 2017, 2018).
These inconsistencies reflect the potential conflicting functions of green spaces in
relation to these health outcomes. For example, green spaces can increase the risk
of asthma and allergic conditions through releasing allergic pollens (DellaValle
et al. 2012; Lovasi et al. 2013) and fungal spores (Bartra et al. 2009; De Linares
et al. 2010), or through pesticides or fertilisers used for green space maintenance
(Corsini et al. 2012; see also Damialis et al. Chap. 3, this volume). On the other
hand, green spaces can prevent these conditions through enriching environmental
biodiversity, mitigating exposure to air pollution and, to a lesser extent, encouraging
physical activity and reducing the risk of obesity (Hanski et al. 2012; Lovasi et al.
2008; Pilat et al. 2012). The heterogeneity in the available literature could also have
been, in part, due to the poor metrics that did not take into account the differential
allergenicity of different vegetation species or seasonal variation in their allergenic
properties. Different types of green spaces (e.g. parks vs. forests) and different climates/settings could also be contributing factors to such a heterogeneity. For example, a study from Spain reported that residing close to urban parks was associated
with a higher risk of concurrent asthma and allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, while residing close to natural green spaces (e.g. forests) was not (Dadvand et al. 2014a).
Another study that evaluated the impacts of green spaces on respiratory outcomes
reported different impacts across two bio-geographic regions in Spain (Tischer et al.
2017). In the Euro-Siberian region, characterised by a humid climate with water
availability throughout the year, cold winters and maximum vegetation during summer months (Alcaraz-Segura et al. 2009), green spaces were negatively associated
with wheezing. In the Mediterranean region, characterised by an arid climate with
hot and dry summers, mild and rainy winters, and maximum vegetation between
6 Green Spaces and Child Health and Development