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G. Perumal and M. Doble
acid) (PLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and
polycaprolactone (PCL) are widely used in tissue engineering and drug delivery
applications [27].
It has been proven that the efficiency of both natural and synthetic polymers was
significantly enhanced through the utilization of nanotechnology, unlike metals and
ceramics. As mentioned earlier, polymers possess high biocompatibility, controllable
degradation with nanoarchitecture the polymers are important for cell attachment
[38]. It is essential to consider that polymeric nanofibers are amongst better scaffolds for various tissue engineering applications. Hence, they replicate the structural
characteristics similar to that of native ECM subsequently, serving an ideal platform
for cellular functionalities required for specific tissue regeneration [28].
8.2 Biocomposites
Recently, composite biomaterials have been attracted to the development of bone
tissue regeneration scaffolds. The composite materials have distinct advantages due to
the combined properties of the different materials than the original documents. Since
native bone is a nanocomposite of organic and inorganic materials of collagen matrix
embedded nano-hydroxyapatite crystals, therefore, use of nanocomposite scaffolds
could be a preferred biomaterial to mimic the natural bone composition and its
effective regeneration [39]. Numerous studies have been designated the development
and utilization of the ceramic/metal or ceramic/polymer composites as ideal bone
replacements for bone tissue regeneration.
Ceramics are the ultimate choice for bone tissue regeneration owing to their very
good osteoconductivity, bioactivity, and biocompatibility. Additionally, they have
shown improved osteogenic cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. The
most widely used ceramics for bone tissue regeneration include calcium orthophosphates such as nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) and Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) due to
their native bone mineral composition [28]. However, they have a limitation of poor
mechanical properties under weight-bearing applications. In contrast, metals and
alloys are having higher mechanical strength and suitable for load-bearing applications. However, they have poor biocompatibility when compared to ceramics. Studies
have shown that combining HA coating on titanium scaffolds for effective loadbearing applications [40]. Similarly, the plasma spray coating of HA on titanium is
the most suitable method to improve the implants’ bioactivity for orthopedic applications [41, 42]. However, this coating method encountered problems of non-uniform
deposition of different phases of calcium phosphate and failure of the implant due
to peeling off or degradation of the HA [43, 44].
Another category of scaffolds commonly used for bone tissue engineering includes
polymers/ceramics composite due to their biomimetic nature and similar structure
of ECM. When individual materials such as ceramics and polymers and their unique
properties are very good osteoconductive and osteointegration ability, non-toxic
G. Perumal and M. Doble
acid) (PLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and
polycaprolactone (PCL) are widely used in tissue engineering and drug delivery
applications [27].
It has been proven that the efficiency of both natural and synthetic polymers was
significantly enhanced through the utilization of nanotechnology, unlike metals and
ceramics. As mentioned earlier, polymers possess high biocompatibility, controllable
degradation with nanoarchitecture the polymers are important for cell attachment
[38]. It is essential to consider that polymeric nanofibers are amongst better scaffolds for various tissue engineering applications. Hence, they replicate the structural
characteristics similar to that of native ECM subsequently, serving an ideal platform
for cellular functionalities required for specific tissue regeneration [28].
8.2 Biocomposites
Recently, composite biomaterials have been attracted to the development of bone
tissue regeneration scaffolds. The composite materials have distinct advantages due to
the combined properties of the different materials than the original documents. Since
native bone is a nanocomposite of organic and inorganic materials of collagen matrix
embedded nano-hydroxyapatite crystals, therefore, use of nanocomposite scaffolds
could be a preferred biomaterial to mimic the natural bone composition and its
effective regeneration [39]. Numerous studies have been designated the development
and utilization of the ceramic/metal or ceramic/polymer composites as ideal bone
replacements for bone tissue regeneration.
Ceramics are the ultimate choice for bone tissue regeneration owing to their very
good osteoconductivity, bioactivity, and biocompatibility. Additionally, they have
shown improved osteogenic cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. The
most widely used ceramics for bone tissue regeneration include calcium orthophosphates such as nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) and Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) due to
their native bone mineral composition [28]. However, they have a limitation of poor
mechanical properties under weight-bearing applications. In contrast, metals and
alloys are having higher mechanical strength and suitable for load-bearing applications. However, they have poor biocompatibility when compared to ceramics. Studies
have shown that combining HA coating on titanium scaffolds for effective loadbearing applications [40]. Similarly, the plasma spray coating of HA on titanium is
the most suitable method to improve the implants’ bioactivity for orthopedic applications [41, 42]. However, this coating method encountered problems of non-uniform
deposition of different phases of calcium phosphate and failure of the implant due
to peeling off or degradation of the HA [43, 44].
Another category of scaffolds commonly used for bone tissue engineering includes
polymers/ceramics composite due to their biomimetic nature and similar structure
of ECM. When individual materials such as ceramics and polymers and their unique
properties are very good osteoconductive and osteointegration ability, non-toxic