Nanomaterials: Versatile Drug Carriers for Nanomedicine
285
must be studied using primary immune cells and then further animal models to
recognize and categorize different immune responses.
Chitosan is the naturally occurring polymer with the chemical formula of a (1-4)2-amino-2-deoxy b-D-glucan. It is substantially used in biomedical applications due
to its characteristics, including biodegradability, rapid blood clotting, non-toxicity,
high charge density, and muco-adhesivity. Thus, it can be used in various pharmaceutical applications like entrapment or coating of drugs, biochemicals, and antigenic
molecules. Chitosan microspheres have a promising carrier for mucosal vaccination
(nasal and oral) to enhance immune responses [165]. Chitosan can be coated over
inorganic as well as organic nanostructures. It has been shown to improve immune
cell functions such as macrophages and neutrophils, which helps to enhance the
production of growth factors and cytokines [166].
Sodium alginate is a water-soluble, hydrophilic and biocompatible polysaccharide
extracted from marine brown algae. It is often used for the coating of magnetic [167]
and polymeric nanoparticles [168]. Alginate polymers, when digested enzymatically,
form alginate oligomers that can secrete high levels of inflammatory chemokines and
cytokines, like RANTES, MCP-1 in vitro, and in vivo [169]. Combinations of PLGA
and alginate are used to develop vaccines. In immunization studies, incorporation of
alginate by intradermal route in Balb/c mice showed enhanced cellular and humoral
responses [170]. Non-specific immune response, when enhanced in vivo, suggests
that NPs coated with alginate have directed at immune stimulation either for diagnostic purposes or adjuvant vaccine properties to reveal a deficiency in innate immune
reactions.
Silicon dioxide NPs (SiO 2 NPs) have been used in various applications in the
field of biomedical research. As previously described, phagocytes respond more
to micro-sized particles rather than nano-size particles, due to which cell damages
are decreased [171]. An interaction between endothelial cells and amorphous silica
nanoparticles was studied, which promoted the up-regulation of the endothelial adhesion molecules expression. Due to which the adhesion of the monocytes to endothelial cells is enhanced. This is a typical early response to the inflammatory process
[172]. Morishige et al. demonstrated that the chemically modified surface of silica
NPs decreased the inflammasome activation and IL-1β release in the human THP-1
macrophage/monocyte cell line [173].
For the preparation of bimetallic particles, gold coatings are generally used on the
magnetic core for functionalization of the surface, mainly designed for drug delivery
[174] and hyperthermia treatments in cancer [175, 176]. Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) is
also used as a coating for inorganic nanoparticles to escalate their cytocompatibility.
It was illustrated that TiO 2 coating on ZnNPs helped to reduce its release of zinc ions
in the human lung epithelial cell line [177]. Some recent studies mentioned the use
of iron—titanium NPs can be used as a carrier for doxorubicin against cancer cells
[178]. TiO 2 particles are inert and are unable to pass the damaged skin, thus used in
cosmetics and sunscreens as an efficient U.V. light filter [179].
Precise organic or inorganic NPs coatings design to specifically interact or avoid
the immune system could only be achieved if the binding sites are known. NPs show
diverse reactions on their surface, depending on the crystal or atomic structures. Thus,
285
must be studied using primary immune cells and then further animal models to
recognize and categorize different immune responses.
Chitosan is the naturally occurring polymer with the chemical formula of a (1-4)2-amino-2-deoxy b-D-glucan. It is substantially used in biomedical applications due
to its characteristics, including biodegradability, rapid blood clotting, non-toxicity,
high charge density, and muco-adhesivity. Thus, it can be used in various pharmaceutical applications like entrapment or coating of drugs, biochemicals, and antigenic
molecules. Chitosan microspheres have a promising carrier for mucosal vaccination
(nasal and oral) to enhance immune responses [165]. Chitosan can be coated over
inorganic as well as organic nanostructures. It has been shown to improve immune
cell functions such as macrophages and neutrophils, which helps to enhance the
production of growth factors and cytokines [166].
Sodium alginate is a water-soluble, hydrophilic and biocompatible polysaccharide
extracted from marine brown algae. It is often used for the coating of magnetic [167]
and polymeric nanoparticles [168]. Alginate polymers, when digested enzymatically,
form alginate oligomers that can secrete high levels of inflammatory chemokines and
cytokines, like RANTES, MCP-1 in vitro, and in vivo [169]. Combinations of PLGA
and alginate are used to develop vaccines. In immunization studies, incorporation of
alginate by intradermal route in Balb/c mice showed enhanced cellular and humoral
responses [170]. Non-specific immune response, when enhanced in vivo, suggests
that NPs coated with alginate have directed at immune stimulation either for diagnostic purposes or adjuvant vaccine properties to reveal a deficiency in innate immune
reactions.
Silicon dioxide NPs (SiO 2 NPs) have been used in various applications in the
field of biomedical research. As previously described, phagocytes respond more
to micro-sized particles rather than nano-size particles, due to which cell damages
are decreased [171]. An interaction between endothelial cells and amorphous silica
nanoparticles was studied, which promoted the up-regulation of the endothelial adhesion molecules expression. Due to which the adhesion of the monocytes to endothelial cells is enhanced. This is a typical early response to the inflammatory process
[172]. Morishige et al. demonstrated that the chemically modified surface of silica
NPs decreased the inflammasome activation and IL-1β release in the human THP-1
macrophage/monocyte cell line [173].
For the preparation of bimetallic particles, gold coatings are generally used on the
magnetic core for functionalization of the surface, mainly designed for drug delivery
[174] and hyperthermia treatments in cancer [175, 176]. Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) is
also used as a coating for inorganic nanoparticles to escalate their cytocompatibility.
It was illustrated that TiO 2 coating on ZnNPs helped to reduce its release of zinc ions
in the human lung epithelial cell line [177]. Some recent studies mentioned the use
of iron—titanium NPs can be used as a carrier for doxorubicin against cancer cells
[178]. TiO 2 particles are inert and are unable to pass the damaged skin, thus used in
cosmetics and sunscreens as an efficient U.V. light filter [179].
Precise organic or inorganic NPs coatings design to specifically interact or avoid
the immune system could only be achieved if the binding sites are known. NPs show
diverse reactions on their surface, depending on the crystal or atomic structures. Thus,