4
T. K. Barik et al.
term “nano” was coined [42, 43]. As per strict nanometer terminology, any objects
with dimensions in the nm range can be termed as a nanoparticle or a “nano” object,
as TiO 2 dust in the study mentioned above [44]. Nanotechnology not only combines
engineering, physics, and chemistry but also integrates with biology [45]. A physicist generally tries to identify and quantify nanomaterials’ fundamental interactions
with different surrounding systems such as the thermodynamics, the interface of the
nanoparticles with the liquid, and the role of mechanical properties (e.g., stiffness,
elasticity, adhesion), etc.
Past three decades, extensive work has been performed to develop new drugs
from natural products, because of the resistance of microorganisms to the existing
drugs [46]. Researchers from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India,
have discovered that the age-old complementary medicines of Homeopathic pills
and Ayurvedic Bhasmas are having metal nanoparticles such as gold, silver, copper,
platinum, tin, and iron [46, 47]. Metallic nanoparticles (mainly silver and gold) have
unique optical, electrical, and biological properties, that have attracted significant
attention due to their potential use in many applications, such as catalysis, ultrasensitive chemical and biological sensors, bio-imaging, targeted drug delivery and
nanodevice fabrication [13, 48–57]. Recently, various industries like electronics,
aerospace, cosmetics, textile, and even food use nanoparticles. Consequently, the
chance of human exposure to nanoparticles rises, heading towards the time when
nanoparticles are eventually present in blood circulation and interacting with immune
blood cells.
Nanoparticles can be synthesized via various chemical and physical routes such
as chemical reduction, [58–60] photochemical reduction, [61–65] electrochemical
reduction, [66, 67] heat evaporation, [68, 69], etc. In all the above-mentioned
methods, the reagents can be from different properties, i.e. inorganic such as sodium
or potassium borohydrate, hydrazine, and salts of tartrate, or organic ones like sodium
citrate, ascorbic acid, or amino acids, capable of getting oxidized. Various options
are also available to work as a stabilizing agent. Several studies have reported shape
and size dependency of silver nanoparticles formation on capping agents such as
dendrimer, [70] chitosan, [71] ionic liquid, [72], and poly (vinylpyrrolidone) PVP
[73]. These capping agents control the nanoparticle growth via reaction confinement
within the matrix or preferential adsorption on specific crystal facets. Since these
approaches are costly, hazardous, toxic, and non-environment friendly, hence, evaluation of the risk of these nanoparticles to human health becomes critical. Multiple
studies have shown the increase in the number of leukocytes, mainly neutrophils,
in the lungs and bronchoalveolar lavages during airway exposure of nanoparticles
in-vivo models of inflammation. The neutrophil counts act as biomarkers for inflammation. Therefore, the selection of a synthesis route that minimizes the toxicity
and increases nanoparticle stability leads to enhanced biomedical applications of
silver and gold nanoparticles. The development of better experimental procedures
for the synthesis of nanoparticles employing a variety of chemical compositions
and controlled polydispersity offers considerable advancement [74]. Methods of
nanoparticle production through different physical and chemical routes, as stated
above, have their demerits as they produce enormous environmental contaminations
T. K. Barik et al.
term “nano” was coined [42, 43]. As per strict nanometer terminology, any objects
with dimensions in the nm range can be termed as a nanoparticle or a “nano” object,
as TiO 2 dust in the study mentioned above [44]. Nanotechnology not only combines
engineering, physics, and chemistry but also integrates with biology [45]. A physicist generally tries to identify and quantify nanomaterials’ fundamental interactions
with different surrounding systems such as the thermodynamics, the interface of the
nanoparticles with the liquid, and the role of mechanical properties (e.g., stiffness,
elasticity, adhesion), etc.
Past three decades, extensive work has been performed to develop new drugs
from natural products, because of the resistance of microorganisms to the existing
drugs [46]. Researchers from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India,
have discovered that the age-old complementary medicines of Homeopathic pills
and Ayurvedic Bhasmas are having metal nanoparticles such as gold, silver, copper,
platinum, tin, and iron [46, 47]. Metallic nanoparticles (mainly silver and gold) have
unique optical, electrical, and biological properties, that have attracted significant
attention due to their potential use in many applications, such as catalysis, ultrasensitive chemical and biological sensors, bio-imaging, targeted drug delivery and
nanodevice fabrication [13, 48–57]. Recently, various industries like electronics,
aerospace, cosmetics, textile, and even food use nanoparticles. Consequently, the
chance of human exposure to nanoparticles rises, heading towards the time when
nanoparticles are eventually present in blood circulation and interacting with immune
blood cells.
Nanoparticles can be synthesized via various chemical and physical routes such
as chemical reduction, [58–60] photochemical reduction, [61–65] electrochemical
reduction, [66, 67] heat evaporation, [68, 69], etc. In all the above-mentioned
methods, the reagents can be from different properties, i.e. inorganic such as sodium
or potassium borohydrate, hydrazine, and salts of tartrate, or organic ones like sodium
citrate, ascorbic acid, or amino acids, capable of getting oxidized. Various options
are also available to work as a stabilizing agent. Several studies have reported shape
and size dependency of silver nanoparticles formation on capping agents such as
dendrimer, [70] chitosan, [71] ionic liquid, [72], and poly (vinylpyrrolidone) PVP
[73]. These capping agents control the nanoparticle growth via reaction confinement
within the matrix or preferential adsorption on specific crystal facets. Since these
approaches are costly, hazardous, toxic, and non-environment friendly, hence, evaluation of the risk of these nanoparticles to human health becomes critical. Multiple
studies have shown the increase in the number of leukocytes, mainly neutrophils,
in the lungs and bronchoalveolar lavages during airway exposure of nanoparticles
in-vivo models of inflammation. The neutrophil counts act as biomarkers for inflammation. Therefore, the selection of a synthesis route that minimizes the toxicity
and increases nanoparticle stability leads to enhanced biomedical applications of
silver and gold nanoparticles. The development of better experimental procedures
for the synthesis of nanoparticles employing a variety of chemical compositions
and controlled polydispersity offers considerable advancement [74]. Methods of
nanoparticle production through different physical and chemical routes, as stated
above, have their demerits as they produce enormous environmental contaminations