285
also relevant for promoting CSA practices. An examination of a list of CSA practices, such as that provided by Harvey et al. (2014), reveals that it is not possible to
generalize: CSA practices vary considerably in complexity; in whether new skills
are required to apply them; and in the cost, resource intensity and length of time
necessary to generate benefits (CIAT, BFS/USAID 2016). Given this complexity,
perhaps a more relevant question is this: Are there types of practices that are not
suitable to be promoted by farmer-to-farmer extension, and might these include
some CSA practices? Franzel et al. (2015) reported that F2FE, though effective for
a wide range of innovations, is less appropriate for complex practices (e.g., conservation agriculture), high-risk innovations where the cost of an error may be high
(e.g., agrichemicals or artificial insemination) and for what are essentially permanent decisions (e.g., water retention ponds and dams). Degrande and Benoudji
(2017) noted the need for close supervision of farmer-trainers by extension staff in
a conservation agriculture initiative in Chad.
Franzel et al. (2015) also reported that F2FE may not perform well in certain
situations, regardless of the type of practice promoted. For example, it does not do
well in areas of low population density where transportation is a constraint, unless
means of transport are provided. Performance may also be compromised in areas
where farmers are not well organized. It also appears to be less suited to highincome commercial systems, where the opportunity cost of labor is high and social
networks may be weak. It works best where farmer-trainers are serving members of
a farmer group or a producer organization, because in these circumstances trainers
already have a ready clientele.
24.4 Implications for Development
Among those using it, F2FE is perceived to be an effective approach for promoting
a wide variety of practices—including CSA—under a wide range of circumstances.
Scaling up of extension is essential for helping farmers adapt to climate change, and
F2FE has great potential for helping in these efforts. The findings presented in this
paper show that adding F2FE programs can help extension services increase the
numbers of farmers they reach and promote uptake of CSA practices. F2FE, however, is not appropriate for all agricultural practices or situations. Moreover, whereas
extension programs often find it difficult to recruit female professionals, some are
able to significantly increase their proportion of female farmer-trainers by making
special efforts to do so.
There are two other caveats to using the approach. First, F2FE can never be used
to compensate for a poorly performing extension service. Farmer-trainers rely on
extension staff for backstopping and education. As a result, if the extension staff are
inadequately trained or lack transportation, farmer-trainers will not be effective.
Second, neither F2FE nor any single extension approach on its own can scale up
CSA to millions of farmers. Rather, F2FE needs to be combined with other comple24 Farmer-To-Farmer Extension: A Low-Cost Approach for Promoting…
also relevant for promoting CSA practices. An examination of a list of CSA practices, such as that provided by Harvey et al. (2014), reveals that it is not possible to
generalize: CSA practices vary considerably in complexity; in whether new skills
are required to apply them; and in the cost, resource intensity and length of time
necessary to generate benefits (CIAT, BFS/USAID 2016). Given this complexity,
perhaps a more relevant question is this: Are there types of practices that are not
suitable to be promoted by farmer-to-farmer extension, and might these include
some CSA practices? Franzel et al. (2015) reported that F2FE, though effective for
a wide range of innovations, is less appropriate for complex practices (e.g., conservation agriculture), high-risk innovations where the cost of an error may be high
(e.g., agrichemicals or artificial insemination) and for what are essentially permanent decisions (e.g., water retention ponds and dams). Degrande and Benoudji
(2017) noted the need for close supervision of farmer-trainers by extension staff in
a conservation agriculture initiative in Chad.
Franzel et al. (2015) also reported that F2FE may not perform well in certain
situations, regardless of the type of practice promoted. For example, it does not do
well in areas of low population density where transportation is a constraint, unless
means of transport are provided. Performance may also be compromised in areas
where farmers are not well organized. It also appears to be less suited to highincome commercial systems, where the opportunity cost of labor is high and social
networks may be weak. It works best where farmer-trainers are serving members of
a farmer group or a producer organization, because in these circumstances trainers
already have a ready clientele.
24.4 Implications for Development
Among those using it, F2FE is perceived to be an effective approach for promoting
a wide variety of practices—including CSA—under a wide range of circumstances.
Scaling up of extension is essential for helping farmers adapt to climate change, and
F2FE has great potential for helping in these efforts. The findings presented in this
paper show that adding F2FE programs can help extension services increase the
numbers of farmers they reach and promote uptake of CSA practices. F2FE, however, is not appropriate for all agricultural practices or situations. Moreover, whereas
extension programs often find it difficult to recruit female professionals, some are
able to significantly increase their proportion of female farmer-trainers by making
special efforts to do so.
There are two other caveats to using the approach. First, F2FE can never be used
to compensate for a poorly performing extension service. Farmer-trainers rely on
extension staff for backstopping and education. As a result, if the extension staff are
inadequately trained or lack transportation, farmer-trainers will not be effective.
Second, neither F2FE nor any single extension approach on its own can scale up
CSA to millions of farmers. Rather, F2FE needs to be combined with other comple24 Farmer-To-Farmer Extension: A Low-Cost Approach for Promoting…